Genomic data and ecological niche modeling reveal an unusually slow rate of molecular evolution in the Cretaceous Eupteleaceae.

Living fossils are evidence of long-term sustained ecological success. However, whether living fossils have little molecular changes remains poorly known, particularly in plants. Here, we have introduced a novel method that integrates phylogenomic, comparative genomic, and ecological niche modeling analyses to investigate the rate of molecular evolution of Eupteleaceae, a Cretaceous relict angiosperm family endemic to East Asia. We assembled a high-quality chromosome-level nuclear genome, and the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes of a member of Eupteleaceae (Euptelea pleiosperma). Our results show that Eupteleaceae is most basal in Ranunculales, the earliest-diverging order in eudicots, and shares an ancient whole-genome duplication event with the other Ranunculales. We document that Eupteleaceae has the slowest rate of molecular changes in the observed angiosperms. The unusually low rate of molecular evolution of Eupteleaceae across all three independent inherited genomes and genes within each of the three genomes is in association with its conserved genome architecture, ancestral woody habit, and conserved niche requirements. Our findings reveal the evolution and adaptation of living fossil plants through large-scale environmental change and also provide new insights into early eudicot diversification.

A cornucopia of diversity-Ranunculales as a model lineage.

The Ranunculales are a hyperdiverse lineage in many aspects of their phenotype, including growth habit, floral and leaf morphology, reproductive mode, and specialized metabolism. Many Ranunculales species, such as opium poppy and goldenseal, have a high medicinal value. In addition, the order includes a large number of commercially important ornamental plants, such as columbines and larkspurs. The phylogenetic position of the order with respect to monocots and core eudicots and the diversity within this lineage make the Ranunculales an excellent group for studying evolutionary processes by comparative studies. Lately, the phylogeny of Ranunculales was revised, and genetic and genomic resources were developed for many species, allowing comparative analyses at the molecular scale. Here, we review the literature on the resources for genetic manipulation and genome sequencing, the recent phylogeny reconstruction of this order, and its fossil record. Further, we explain their habitat range and delve into the diversity in their floral morphology, focusing on perianth organ identity, floral symmetry, occurrences of spurs and nectaries, sexual and pollination systems, and fruit and dehiscence types. The Ranunculales order offers a wealth of opportunities for scientific exploration across various disciplines and scales, to gain novel insights into plant biology for researchers and plant enthusiasts alike.

Pharmacognostic standardization and machine learning-based investigations on Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata.

Currently, Akebiae Caulis is being used in clinical practice, but there are few reseaches on its different varieties. To ensure the accuracy and effectiveness of clinical practice, this study distinguished the Akebia quinata (Thunb.) Decne. and Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz, using organoleptic evaluation, microscopic observation, fluorescence reaction, physicochemical properties, thin-layer chromatography, IR spectroscopy, HPLC, four machine learning models, and in vitro antioxidant methods. Analysis of the powders of these two varieties using optical microscopy revealed the presence of starch granules, cork cells, crystal fibers, scalariform vessels, and wood fibers. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of scalariform vessels, pitted vessels, wood fibers, and calcium oxalate crystals. Several tissues, including the cork layer, fiber population, cortex, phloem, pith, xylem, and ray, were found in the transverse section. In addition, thin-layer chromatography was used to identify two components: oleanolic acid and calceolarioside B; 11 common peaks were identified in 15 batches of SAQ and 5 batches of SAT by using HPLC. Support vector machine, BP neural networks, and GA-bp neural networks were able to predict 100% accurately of the different origins of stem of Akebia quinate (Thunb.) Decne (SAQ) and Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz (SAT). Extreme learning machine achieved a correct rate of 87.5%. Meanwhile, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy fingerprint identified nine characteristic absorption peaks of the secondary metabolites of SAQ and SAT. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-1-picrylhydrazyl experiment revealed that the IC50 values of SAQ and SAT extracts were 155.49 and 128.75 µg/ml, respectively. For the 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) assay, the IC50 value of SAT extract was found to be 269.24 µg/ml, which was lower than that of SAQ extract (IC50 = 358.99 µg/ml). This study successfully used different methods to differentiate between A. quinata (Thunb.) Decne. and A. trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz., to help decide on which type to use for clinical application.

Population performance and detoxifying and protective enzyme activities of four thrips species feeding on flowers of Magnolia grandiflora (Ranunculales: Magnolia).

BACKGROUND: Different thrips species can co-occur on the same flowers with different dominance degrees. To accurately evaluate the population performance on different thrips species on Magnolia grandiflora flowers, we investigated the diversity of thrips species and their population dynamics both in the field and laboratory. In addition, the activities of detoxifying and protective enzymes in thrips were also measured. RESULTS: Field investigations revealed that four thrips species (Thrips hawaiiensis, Thrips flavidulus, Frankliniella occidentalis, and Thrips coloratus) coexisted on M. grandiflora flowers. They were ranked, from highest population density to lowest, as follows: T. hawaiiensis > T. flavidulus > F. occidentalis > T. coloratus. In laboratory investigations, the species were ranked, from fastest developmental rates to slowest, as follows: F. occidentalis > T. hawaiiensis > T. flavidulus > T. coloratus; and from largest population size to smallest, as follows: T. hawaiiensis > F. occidentalis > T. flavidulus > T. coloratus. Biochemistry assays showed that the four species differed in their activities of detoxifying enzymes (carboxylesterase, glutathione-S-transferase, and cytochrome P450) and protective enzymes (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase) in both laboratory and field strains. CONCLUSION: Differences in population performance among these four thrips on M. grandiflora may be related to their activity levels of physiological enzymes. The variations in thrips population performance between the field and the laboratory could be due to differences in environmental conditions. T. hawaiiensis showed a strong host preference for M. grandiflora, and thus it has the potential to be a dangerous pest in horticultural plants. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Population Genomic Analyses Suggest a Hybrid Origin, Cryptic Sexuality, and Decay of Genes Regulating Seed Development for the Putatively Strictly Asexual Kingdonia uniflora (Circaeasteraceae, Ranunculales).

Asexual lineages are perceived to be short-lived on evolutionary timescales. Hence, reports for exceptional cases of putative 'ancient asexuals' usually raise questions about the persistence of such species. So far, there have been few studies to solve the mystery in plants. The monotypic Kingdonia dating to the early Eocene, contains only K. uniflora that has no known definitive evidence for sexual reproduction nor records for having congeneric sexual species, raising the possibility that the species has persisted under strict asexuality for a long period of time. Here, we analyze whole genome polymorphism and divergence in K. uniflora. Our results show that K. uniflora is characterized by high allelic heterozygosity and elevated πN/πS ratio, in line with theoretical expectations under asexual evolution. Allele frequency spectrum analysis reveals the origin of asexuality in K. uniflora occurred prior to lineage differentiation of the species. Although divergence within K. uniflora individuals exceeds that between populations, the topologies of the two haplotype trees, however, fail to match each other, indicating long-term asexuality is unlikely to account for the high allele divergence and K. uniflora may have a recent hybrid origin. Phi-test shows a statistical probability of recombination for the conflicting phylogenetic signals revealed by the split network, suggesting K. uniflora engages in undetected sexual reproduction. Detection of elevated genetic differentiation and premature stop codons (in some populations) in genes regulating seed development indicates mutational degradation of sexuality-specific genes in K. uniflora. This study unfolds the origin and persistence mechanism of a plant lineage that has been known to reproduce asexually and presents the genomic consequences of lack of sexuality.

Evaluating Potentials of Species Rich Taxonomic Groups in Cosmetics and Dermatology: Clustering and Dispersion of Skin Efficacy of Asteraceae and Ranunculales Plants on the Species Phylogenetic Tree.

BACKGROUND: The medicinal properties of plants can be predicted by virtue of phylogenetic methods, which nevertheless have not been utilized to explore the regularity of skin-related bioactivities of ethnomedicinal plants. We aim to investigate the distribution of skin efficacy of Asteraceae and Ranunculales plants on the species-level Tree of Life. METHODS: The clinical efficacy data of 551 ethnomedicinal species belonging to Ranunculales, as well as 579 ethnomedicinal species of Asteraceae, were systematically collected and collated; these therapeutic data fell into 15 categories, including skin disease/cosmeceutical. The large phylogenetic tree of all China angiosperm species was used to detect the phylogenetic signals of ethnomedicinal plants by calculating the D statistic, phylogenetic diversity (PD), net relatedness index (NRI), and nearest taxon index (NTI). Of all Chinese ethnomedicinal plants of Ranunculales and Asteraceae, 339 (61.5% of all ethnomedicinal species) and 382 (66.0% of all) are used for skin problems. In Ranunculales, a clustered structure was suggested by the NRI value for skin uses. In Asteraceae, the skin utility was not clustered; Artemisia, Aster, Cremanthodium, Ligularia, and Saussurea are the most used Asteraceae genera for skin issues. RESULTS: The clustering structure was identified in Artemisia, and the skin efficacy in other genera was of overdispersion (NRI < 0). NTI values and D statistics largely agree with NRI. When compared with PD values of different therapeutic categories, the PD value of the skin category was relatively high in Cremanthodium, Ranunculales, Asteraceae, and Artemisia, suggesting the enormous efficacy space in the new taxa of these taxonomic groups. CONCLUSION: By resolving the distribution of therapeutic effects of Ranunculales/Asteraceae taxa, the importance of phylogenetic methods in mining botanical resources with skin utilities is validated.

Streptomyces akebiae sp. nov., a novel actinomycete isolated from rhizosphere soil of Akebia trifoliate.

A novel actinomycete strain, designated as MG28T, was isolated from rhizosphere soil of Akebia trifoliate. The taxonomic position of the strain was investigated by using a polyphasic approach. BLAST search of the full-length 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain MG28T indicated it represented a member of the genus Streptomyces, and displayed 99.03%, 98.90%, 98.90%, 98.89%, 98.83% and less than 98.70% sequence similarities with S. phaeolivaceus GY16T, S. deccanensis KCTC 19241T, S. europaeiscabiei KACC 20186T, S. fructofermentans CGMCC 4.1593T, S. scabiei NRRL B-16523T and other species of the genus Streptomyces with validly published names, respectively. Phylogenomic analysis indicated that strain MG28T was closely related to Streptomyces deccanensis KCTC 19241T. However, the average nucleotide identity values and the digital DNA-DNA hybridization values between them indicated that strain MG28T represented a distinct species. Furthermore, strain MG28T was also distinctly differentiated from strain KCTC 19241T by morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics. Therefore, strain MG28T (= MCCC 1K06895T = JCM 34922T) represents a novel species of the genus Streptomyces, for which the name Streptomyces akebiae sp. nov. is proposed.

Expression Profiles of Microsatellites in Fruit Tissues of Akebia trifoliata and Development of Efficient EST-SSR Markers.

Akebia trifoliata, a member of the family Lardizabalaceae, has high exploitation potential for multiple economic purposes, so genetic improvements to meet requirements for commercial demand are needed. However, this progress is largely impeded by a lack of effective selection markers. In this study, we obtained 271.49 Gb of clean transcriptomic data from 12 samples (three tissues at four developmental stages) of A. trifoliata fruit. We identified 175,604, 194,370, and 207,906 SSRs from the de novo assembled 416,363, 463,756, and 491,680 unigene sequences obtained from the flesh, seed, and rind tissues, respectively. The profile and proportion of SSR motifs expressed in each fruit tissue and developmental stage were remarkably similar, but many trinucleotide repeats had differential expression levels among different tissues or at different developmental stages. In addition, we successfully designed 16,869 functional EST-SSR primers according to the annotated unigenes. Finally, 94 and 72 primer pairs out of 100 randomly selected primer pairs produced clear bands and polymorphic bands, respectively. These results were also used to elucidate the expression profiles of different tissues at various stages. Additionally, we provided a set of effective, polymorphic, and reliable EST-SSR markers sufficient for accelerating the discovery of metabolic and pathway-specific functional genes for genetic improvement and increased commercial productivity.

Pharmacokinetics Study of Jin-Gu-Lian Prescription and Its Core Drug Pair (Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehd. et W and Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms) by UPLC-MS/MS.

Jin-Gu-Lian (JGL) is traditionally used by Miao for the treatment of rheumatism arthralgia. At the same time, the combination of Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehd. et W (SC) and Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms (AC), the core drug pair (CDP) in the formula of JGL, is used at high frequencies in many Miao medicine prescriptions for rheumatic diseases. However, previous research lacks the pharmacokinetic study of JGL, and study on the compatibility of its CDP with other medicinal herbs in the formula is needed. This study aims to establish a simple, rapid, and sensitive Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous determination of four main bioactive components of JGL in rat plasma, including Salidroside (Sal), Anabasine (Ana), Chlorogenic Acid (CA), and Protocatechuic Acid (PCA), and compare the pharmacokinetic properties of two groups of rats after being orally administrated with JGL and its CDP extracts, respectively. The results showed that area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC), mean retention time (MRT), and clearance rate (CL), of Sal, Ana, CA and PCA in the two groups of rats were changed in different degrees. The CDP combined with other drugs could significantly increase the absorption of Sal and Ana, prolong its retention time in vivo, and may accelerate the absorption rate of CA and PCA. This indicated that the combination of CDP and other herbs may affect the pharmacokinetics process of active components in vivo, increase the exposure and bioavailability of compounds in the JGL group, and prolong the retention time, which may be the reason why JGL has a better inhibitory effect on inflammatory cytokines, providing a viable orientation for the compatibility investigation of herb medicines.

Exploring the mechanism of Akebia trifoliata fruit cracking based on cell-wall metabolism.

Akebia trifoliata fruit cracks easily, but little is known about the underlying mechanism of this process. In this study, the changes in minerals contents, water distribution, phytohormone levels, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism were investigated to explore the effects of cell-wall metabolism in A. trifoliata fruit cracking. The micro-morphological observation confirmed that A. trifoliata fruit cracking was closely related to the cell-wall metabolism. After cracking, the higher polygalacturonase, ß-1,4-endoglucanase, and ß-glucosidase activities resulted in the depolymerization of covalently bound pectin (from 9.69% to 7.70%) and cellulose (from 57.91% to 38.05%). Moreover, the disordered ROS homeostasis resulted from the lower superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase activities, which led to cellular oxidative damage. These modifications, together with the decreases in Ca, K, and B, degradation of starch, and the movement of water, decreased cell-wall strength and degraded the cellulose network, and thus resulted in A. trifoliata cracking. The above processes were regulated by phytohormones through increased indole-3-acetic acid, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid levels, as well as decreased cytokinin content. The findings of this study will be beneficial for further research into the preservation of A. trifoliata fruit, which is of great significance to the development of the A. trifoliata industry.

The genome of Corydalis reveals the evolution of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in Ranunculales.

Species belonging to the order Ranunculales have attracted much attention because of their phylogenetic position as a sister group to all other eudicot lineages and their ability to produce unique yet diverse benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs). The Papaveraceae family in Ranunculales is often used as a model system for studying BIA biosynthesis. Here, we report the chromosome-level genome assembly of Corydalis tomentella, a species of Fumarioideae, one of the two subfamilies of Papaveraceae. Based on comparisons of sequenced Ranunculalean species, we present clear evidence of a shared whole-genome duplication (WGD) event that has occurred before the divergence of Ranunculales but after its divergence from other eudicot lineages. The C. tomentella genome enabled us to integrate isotopic labeling and comparative genomics to reconstruct the BIA biosynthetic pathway for both sanguinarine biosynthesis shared by papaveraceous species and the cavidine biosynthesis that is specific to Corydalis. Also, our comparative analysis revealed that gene duplications, especially tandem gene duplications, underlie the diversification of BIA biosynthetic pathways in Ranunculales. In particular, tandemly duplicated berberine bridge enzyme-like genes appear to be involved in cavidine biosynthesis. In conclusion, our study of the C. tomentella genome provides important insights into the occurrence of WGDs during the early evolution of eudicots, as well as into the evolution of BIA biosynthesis in Ranunculales.

Characterization of the WRKY gene family in Akebia trifoliata and their response to Colletotrichum acutatum.

BACKGROUND: Akebia trifoliata, belonging to the Lardizabalaceae family, is a well-known Chinese traditional medicinal plant, susceptible to many diseases, such as anthracnose and powdery mildew. WRKY is one of the largest plant-specific transcription factor families and plays important roles in plant growth, development and stress response, especially in disease resistance. However, little was known about the numbers, characters, evolutionary relationship and expression of WRKY genes in A. trifoliata in response to plant disease due to lacking of A. trifoliata genome. RESULTS: A total of 42 putative AktWRKY genes were identified based on the full-length transcriptome-sequencing data of A. trifoliata. Then 42 AktWRKY genes were divided into three major groups (Group I-III) based on the WRKY domains. Motif analysis showed members within same group shared a similar motif composition, implying a functional conservation. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed that AktWRKY genes could be detected in all tissues, while few AktWRKY genes were tissue specific. We further evaluated the expression of AktWRKY genes in three varieties in response to Colletotrichum acutatum by qRT-PCR. The expression patterns of AktWRKY genes were similar between C01 and susceptible variety I02, but distinctly different in resistant variety H05. In addition, it showed that more than 64 percentages of AktWRKY genes were differentially expressed during fungal infection in I02 and H05. Furthermore, Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that AktWRKY genes were categorized into 26 functional groups under cellular components, molecular functions and biological processes, and a predicted protein interaction network was also constructed. CONCLUSIONS: Results of bioinformation analysis and expression patterns implied that AktWRKYs might play multiple function in response to biotic stresses. Our study could facilitate to further investigate the function and regulatory mechanism of the WRKY in A. trifoliata during pathogen response.

A Genome Sequence Resource of Nigrospora sphaerica Causing Fruit Dried-Shrink Disease in Akebia trifoliata.

Nigrospora sphaerica is a worldwide plant pathogen causing fruit or leaf diseases on a variety of plant hosts such as Citrullus lanatus, Vigna unguiculata, Hylocereus polyrhizus, and Akebia trifoliata and other potential hosts. Here we report the first genome resource with high-quality assembly of the N. sphaerica strain ZJJ-C1, which causes fruit dried-shrink disease in A. trifoliata in China. The genome sequence of ZJJ-C1 will be useful for studying the evolution, host adaptation, and pathogenicity of N. sphaerica, which will be beneficial for a better understanding of the mechanisms of host-pathogen interaction during the endophytic period.

Phylogenomics and diversification drivers of the Eastern Asian - Eastern North American disjunct Podophylloideae.

Evolutionary and biogeographic processes determine species richness patterns of vascular plants between Eastern Asia (EA) and Eastern North America (ENA). However, the strikingly higher species richness of EA relative to ENA remains poorly understood from this perspective. Here, we studied the relative importance of biogeographical, evolutionary and ecological factors underlying differences in species richness between EA and ENA in Podophylloideae (Berberidaceae, Ranunculales; in total 10 spp. in EA vs. 2 spp. in ENA). Based on large-scale transcriptome data, our phylogenomic analyses strongly supported Podophylloideae and its two multi-species genera, i.e. Dysosma (EA) and Diphylleia (EA/ENA), as monophyletic groups. Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (EA) was identified as sister to the remainder of Podophylloideae. Dysosma (7 spp.) was recovered as sister to Podophyllum peltatum (ENA), forming an EA-ENA disjunct pair with a strong bias of species diversity in the EA counterpart. Our biogeographic analyses support the 'out-of-Tibet' hypothesis, suggesting that Podophylloideae started to diversify in the Himalaya-Hengduan Mountains (Mid-Miocene) and migrated eastward (since the Late Miocene) into Central-eastern China, Japan, and ENA (only P. peltatum and Diphylleia cymosa). Overall, we conclude that the striking species diversity anomaly between EA and ENA in Podophylloideae may be explained by a combination of (1) a longer period of time available to accumulate species in EA; and (2) a greater diversification rate in EA, which might have been promoted by greater physiographic and environmental heterogeneity in this region.

Preparation and structural properties of selenium modified heteropolysaccharide from the fruits of Akebia quinata and in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity.

Cancer is a complex disease, and blocking tumor angiogenesis has become one of the most promising approaches in cancer therapy. Here, an exopoly heteropolysaccharide (AQP70-2B) was firstly isolated from Akebia quinata. Monosaccharide composition indicated that the AQP70-2B was composed of rhamnose, glucose, galactose, and arabinose. The backbone of AQP70-2B consisted of →1)-l-Araf, →3)-l-Araf-(1→, →5)-l-Araf-(1→, →3,5)-l-Araf-(1→, →2,5)-l-Araf-(1→, →4)-d-Glcp-(1→, →6)-d-Galp-(1→, and →1)-d-Rhap residues. Based on the close relationship between selenium and anti-tumor activity, AQP70-2B was modified with selenium to obtain selenized polysaccharide Se-AQP70-2B. Then, a series of methods for analysis and characterization, especially scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), indicated that Se-AQP70-2B was successfully synthesized. Furthermore, zebrafish xenografts and anti-angiogenesis experiments indicated that selenization could improve the antitumor activity by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and migration and blocking angiogenesis.

Isolation and identification of two new sargentodoxosides from Sargentodoxa cuneata and their agonistic effects against FXR.

Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehd. et Wils is a traditional Chinese medicine to treat acute appendicitis, rheumarthritis, abdominal pain, and painful menstruation for a long history. The investigation of S. cuneata led to the isolation and identification of twenty-three secondary metabolites, including two new compounds, sargentodoxosides A (1) and B (2), and twenty-one known ones (3-23). Their structural characterization was conducted by HRESIMS, 1 D and 2 D NMR spectra. All the isolated compounds were assayed for their agonistic activities against the farnesoid X receptor (FXR). Nine of the isolated compounds displayed significant agonistic effects against FXR at 0.1 µM, suggesting that they could be served as potential agents for the development of FXR agonists.

Endophytic bacterial communities are associated with leaf mimicry in the vine Boquila trifoliolata.

The mechanisms behind the unique capacity of the vine Boquila trifoliolata to mimic the leaves of several tree species remain unknown. A hypothesis in the original leaf mimicry report considered that microbial vectors from trees could carry genes or epigenetic factors that would alter the expression of leaf traits in Boquila. Here we evaluated whether leaf endophytic bacterial communities are associated with the mimicry pattern. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we compared the endophytic bacterial communities in three groups of leaves collected in a temperate rainforest: (1) leaves from the model tree Rhaphithamnus spinosus (RS), (2) Boquila leaves mimicking the tree leaves (BR), and (3) Boquila leaves from the same individual vine but not mimicking the tree leaves (BT). We hypothesized that bacterial communities would be more similar in the BR-RS comparison than in the BT-RS comparison. We found significant differences in the endophytic bacterial communities among the three groups, verifying the hypothesis. Whereas non-mimetic Boquila leaves and tree leaves (BT-RS) showed clearly different bacterial communities, mimetic Boquila leaves and tree leaves (BR-RS) showed an overlap concerning their bacterial communities. The role of bacteria in this unique case of leaf mimicry should be studied further.

Akebia quinata and Akebia trifoliata - a review of phytochemical composition, ethnopharmacological approaches and biological studies.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: 'Akebia stem' (Akebiae caulis) is one of the newest raw materials officially introduced into therapeutic practice from traditional Chinese medicine. A monograph on this material appeared for the first time in 2018 in Supplement 9.6 to the 9th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia. In the latest 10th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia, the monograph remained unchanged. The 'Akebia stem' monograph allows the use, as a raw material, of Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne., A. trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz, or a mixture of the two species. AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of this work is a detailed review of the scientific literature on the genus Akebia (family Lardizabalaceae), with particular emphasis on A. quinata and A. trifoliata, providing information on the botanical, ecological, and chemical characteristics of these species. Professional research on their biological activity has been reviewed. The attention is given to phytochemistry and cosmetology. The traditional use of Akebia species and their potential use in medicine and cosmetology are assessed. In addition, individual papers describing biotechnology research on in vitro cultures of the two Akebia species are presented. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The presented botanical, ecological, phytochemical and biotechnological characterization is based on a thorough review of published scientific research. It is a compilation and evaluation of data on the chemical composition and biological activities of these Akebia species. RESULTS: This critical review of phytochemical studies demonstrates that triterpenoid saponins are dominant secondary metabolites of these species. A comparative analysis of phytochemical studies on A. quinata and A. trifoliata stems, roots, fruits, and seeds showed differences in metabolites based on the plant parts and species. The triterpenoid saponins mutongsaponin C and saponin Pj1 have been found only in A. trifoliata, whereas the phenolic glycoside 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-ethyl-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside has been found only in A. quinata. Biological activity studies of A. quinata stem, leaf and/or fruit extracts have confirmed diuretic, hepatoregenerative, neuroprotective, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity effects and an influence on ethanol metabolism. Different action profiles have been demonstrated for A. trifoliata stem, leaf and/or fruit extracts. Studies have proven the antibacterial and anticancer (liver and stomach) effects of these species. This review presents potential phytopharmacological applications of both species and detailed data on their broad applications in cosmetology. Attention is also drawn to information on the safety of using Akebia. Finally, an overview of biotechnology research on both species is presented. CONCLUSIONS: This review provides comprehensive knowledge about the ethnopharmacological use of Akebia species. Moreover, new findings on the differences in the chemical composition and biological activity profiles are underlined.

Antimicrobial, antioxidant and physical properties of chitosan film containing Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. peel extract/montmorillonite and its application.

A novel active packaging film was prepared in this study that incorporated Akebia trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz. peel extracts (APE) and montmorillonite (MMT) into chitosan (CH) films. Compared with the pure CH film, the CH/APE film showed significantly higher tensile strength, elongation at break, UV light resistance, and antibacterial activity; the CH/MMT film displayed significant increases in contact angle, antioxidant activity, oxygen permeability, and thermal stability. SEM and AFM analyses showed that the additions were well-distributed into the CH matrix, but MMT induced a more compact and rougher structure. The CH-based film formula was optimized using the single-factor test and Box-Behnken design and was 0.15% MMT, 0.15% APE, and 1.50% CH. Besides, the optimized coating was applied in the postharvest preservation of A. trifoliata fruits, which yielded a significant effect on the delaying crack and mature of the fruits during 35 days of storage at 5 °C.

Natural Triterpenoids Isolated from Akebia trifoliata Stem Explants Exert a Hypoglycemic Effect via α-Glucosidase Inhibition and Glucose Uptake Stimulation in Insulin-Resistant HepG2 Cells.

The inhibition of α-glucosidase activity is a prospective approach to attenuate postprandial hyperglycemia in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Herein, the inhibition of α-glucosidase by three compounds T1 -T3 of Akebia trifoliata stem, namely hederagenin (T1 ), 3-epiakebonoic acid (T2 ), and arjunolic acid (T3 ) were investigated using enzyme kinetics and molecular docking analysis. The three triterpenoids exhibited excellent inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase. T1 -T3 showed the strongest inhibition with IC50 values of 42.1±5.4, 19.6±3.2, and 11.2±2.3 µM, respectively, compared to the acarbose positive control (IC50 =106.3±8.2). Enzyme inhibition kinetics showed that triterpenoids T1 -T3 demonstrated competitive, mixed, and noncompetitive-type inhibition against α-glucosidase, respectively. The inhibition constant (Ki ) values were 21.21, 7.70, and 3.18 µM, respectively. Docking analysis determined that the interaction of ligands T1 -T3 and α-glucosidase was mainly forced by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions, which could result in improved binding to the active site of the target enzyme. The insulin resistant (IR)-HepG2 cell model used in this study (HepG2 cells exposed to 10-7  M insulin for 24 h) and glucose uptake assays showed that compounds T1 -T3 had no cytotoxicity with concentrations ranging from 6.25 to 25 µM and displayed significant stimulation of glucose uptake in IR-HepG2 cells. Thus, triterpenoids T1 -T3 showed dual therapeutic effects of α-glucosidase inhibition and glucose uptake stimulation and could be used as potential medicinal resources to investigate new antidiabetic agents for the prevention or treatment of diabetes.