CCR7-guided neutrophil redirection to skin-draining lymph nodes regulates cutaneous inflammation and infection.

Neutrophils are the first nonresident effector immune cells that migrate to a site of infection or inflammation; however, improper control of neutrophil responses can cause considerable tissue damage. Here, we found that neutrophil responses in inflamed or infected skin were regulated by CCR7-dependent migration and phagocytosis of neutrophils in draining lymph nodes (dLNs). In mouse models of Toll-like receptor-induced skin inflammation and cutaneous Staphylococcus aureus infection, neutrophils migrated from the skin to the dLNs via lymphatic vessels in a CCR7-mediated manner. In the dLNs, these neutrophils were phagocytosed by lymph node-resident type 1 and type 2 conventional dendritic cells. CCR7 up-regulation on neutrophils was a conserved mechanism across different tissues and was induced by a broad range of microbial stimuli. In the context of cutaneous immune responses, disruption of CCR7 interactions by selective CCR7 deficiency of neutrophils resulted in increased antistaphylococcal immunity and aggravated skin inflammation. Thus, neutrophil homing to and clearance in skin-dLNs affects cutaneous immunity versus pathology.

C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 7 Exacerbates Hypertension Through Effects on T Lymphocyte Trafficking.

Activated T lymphocytes that infiltrate blood pressure control organs make a critical contribution to the pathogenesis of hypertension. Dendritic cells act as potent antigen-presenting cells to stimulate prohypertensive T cells. However, the mechanisms that facilitate the recruitment of prohypertensive T cells and dendritic cells into the kidney's draining lymph node during hypertension require elucidation. As CCR7 (C-C motif chemokine receptor type 7) directs the homing of lymphocytes and dendritic cells into lymph nodes, we posited that dendritic cell-mediated T lymphocyte stimulation in the renal lymph node is CCR7 dependent and required for a full hypertensive response. We found that CCR7-deficient (CCR7 KO) mice had a blunted hypertensive response in our model of chronic Ang II (angiotensin II) infusion. Ang II-infused CCR7 KO animals had exaggerated accumulation of CD8+ T cells in the kidney but reduced numbers of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the kidney's draining lymph node. To understand whether CCR7-dependent homing of T lymphocytes or dendritic cells into the lymph node regulates the hypertensive response, we injected CCR7 KO or wild-type T cells or dendritic cells into CCR7 KO recipients, neither of which restored the full hypertensive response to Ang II infusion. However, adoptive transfer of wild-type but not CCR7 KO T lymphocytes into RAG1 (recombination-activating gene 1)-deficient mice that lack a lymphocyte niche restored full blood pressure elevation during Ang II infusion. Thus, CCR7-dependent interactions between T lymphocytes and dendritic cells are essential for T lymphocyte stimulation and hypertension accruing from inappropriate activation of the renin-angiotensin system.

CCR7-deficient mice exhibit a delayed antigen-specific mucosal IgA antibody response to an oral recombinant Salmonella strain.

The migration of antigen (Ag)-loading dendritic cells (DCs) from Peyer's patches (PPs) to the draining mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) via chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) is thought to be an important step in the initiation of acquired immunity. Our previous study showed that PPs were indispensable for Ag-specific secretory (S)IgA antibody (Ab) responses against oral recombinant Salmonella (rSalmonella). In this study, we attempted to show direct PP DC migration to MLNs by employing photoconvertible protein transgenic mice and investigated the role of the CCR7 signaling pathway in mucosal IgA induction. Our results demonstrated an actual flux of DCs from PPs to MLNs. The frequency of CCR7+ CD11c+ DCs in MLNs of PP-deficient mice was reduced, suggesting that some PP DCs migrated via CCR7. Immunization of CCR7-/- mice elicited significantly lower levels of Ag-specific SIgA Ab responses, which was associated with diminished formation of the germinal center in PPs. However, increased SIgA Ab production and dissemination of rSalmonella were observed at later time points. These results suggest that, although CCR7 was required for SIgA induction at normal velocity, the CCR7-mediated pathway is not essential for the induction of Ag-specific SIgA Ab responses to rSalmonella.

Deletion of self-reactive CCR7- thymocytes in the absence of MHC expression on thymic epithelial cells.

The selection of αß T cells in the thymus is punctuated by checkpoints at which thymocytes differentiate or undergo apoptosis. Wave 1 deletion is defined as apoptosis within nascent αß T-cell antigen receptor (TCR)-signalled thymocytes that lack CCR7 expression. The antigen-presenting cell (APC) types that mediate wave 1 deletion are unclear. To measure wave 1 deletion, we compared the frequencies of TCRß + CD5 + Helios + CCR7- cells in nascent thymocyte cohorts in mice with normal or defective apoptosis. This thymocyte population is small in mice lacking major histocompatibility complex (MHC) expression. The scale of wave 1 deletion was increased by transgenic expression of the self-reactive Yae62 TCRß chain, was almost halved when haemopoietic APCs lacked MHC expression and, surprisingly, was unchanged when epithelial cells lacked MHC expression. These findings demonstrate efficiency, and some redundancy, in the APC types that mediate wave 1 deletion in the normal mouse thymus.

CNS lymphatic drainage and neuroinflammation are regulated by meningeal lymphatic vasculature.

Neuroinflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, are characterized by invasion of the brain by autoreactive T cells. The mechanism for how T cells acquire their encephalitogenic phenotype and trigger disease remains, however, unclear. The existence of lymphatic vessels in the meninges indicates a relevant link between the CNS and peripheral immune system, perhaps affecting autoimmunity. Here we demonstrate that meningeal lymphatics fulfill two critical criteria: they assist in the drainage of cerebrospinal fluid components and enable immune cells to enter draining lymph nodes in a CCR7-dependent manner. Unlike other tissues, meningeal lymphatic endothelial cells do not undergo expansion during inflammation, and they express a unique transcriptional signature. Notably, the ablation of meningeal lymphatics diminishes pathology and reduces the inflammatory response of brain-reactive T cells during an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Our findings demonstrate that meningeal lymphatics govern inflammatory processes and immune surveillance of the CNS and pose a valuable target for therapeutic intervention.

Manifold Roles of CCR7 and Its Ligands in the Induction and Maintenance of Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue.

The processes underlying the development and maintenance of tertiary lymphoid organs are incompletely understood. Using a Ccr7 knockout/knockin approach, we show that spontaneous bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) formation can be caused by CCR7-mediated migration defects of dendritic cells (DCs) in the lung. Plt/plt mice that lack the CCR7 ligands CCL19 and CCL21-serine do not form BALT spontaneously because lung-expressed CCL21-leucine presumably suffices to maintain steady-state DC egress. However, plt/plt mice are highly susceptible to modified vaccinia virus infection, showing enhanced recruitment of immune cells as well as alterations in CCR7-ligand-mediated lymphocyte egress from the lungs, leading to dramatically enhanced BALT. Furthermore, we identify two independent BALT homing routes for blood-derived lymphocytes. One is HEV mediated and depends on CCR7 and L-selectin, while the second route is via the lung parenchyma and is independent of these molecules. Together, these data provide insights into CCR7/CCR7-ligand-orchestrated aspects in BALT formation.

CCR7 Modulates the Generation of Thymic Regulatory T Cells by Altering the Composition of the Thymic Dendritic Cell Compartment.

Upon recognition of auto-antigens, thymocytes are negatively selected or diverted to a regulatory T cell (Treg) fate. CCR7 is required for negative selection of auto-reactive thymocytes in the thymic medulla. Here, we describe an unanticipated contribution of CCR7 to intrathymic Treg generation. Ccr7-/- mice have increased Treg cellularity because of a hematopoietic but non-T cell autonomous CCR7 function. CCR7 expression by thymic dendritic cells (DCs) promotes survival of mature Sirpα- DCs. Thus, CCR7 deficiency results in apoptosis of Sirpα- DCs, which is counterbalanced by expansion of immature Sirpα+ DCs that efficiently induce Treg generation. CCR7 deficiency results in enhanced intrathymic generation of Tregs at the neonatal stage and in lymphopenic adults, when Treg differentiation is critical for establishing self-tolerance. Together, these results reveal a complex function for CCR7 in thymic tolerance induction, where CCR7 not only promotes negative selection but also governs intrathymic Treg generation via non-thymocyte intrinsic mechanisms.

CCR7 Deficiency Allows Accelerated Clearance of Chlamydia from the Female Reproductive Tract.

Immune mechanisms responsible for pathogen clearance from the female reproductive tract (FRT) are incompletely defined; in particular, the contribution of lymphocyte trafficking to this process is unclear. CCR7-deficient mice have profoundly altered lymphocyte recirculation and display ectopic formation of lymphocyte aggregates within mucosal nonlymphoid tissues, including the FRT. In this study, we investigated how altered lymphocyte distribution in CCR7-deficient mice would affect host responses to Chlamydia muridarum within the reproductive tract. As expected, CCR7-deficient mice exhibited reduced lymphocyte trafficking to lymph nodes and a corresponding increase in T cell populations within the FRT. After intravaginal infection with Chlamydia, CCR7-deficient mice displayed markedly reduced Ag-specific CD4 T cell responses within the local draining iliac lymph nodes, yet robust Th1 and Th17 responses were prominent in the FRT. In addition, Chlamydia-specific Ab responses were dysregulated in CCR7-deficient mice, displaying an unexpected increase in the systemic IgA responses. Importantly, prominent mucosal immune responses in CCR7-deficient mice increased the efficiency of bacteria clearance from the FRT while reducing tissue-associated inflammation and pathology. Thus, increased numbers of lymphocytes within the FRT result in pathogen clearance with reduced immune-mediated pathology.

Characterization of High-Avidity Cytomegalovirus-Specific T Cells with Differential Tetramer Binding Coappearing after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation.

CMV reactivation is a major complication after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT). Immune reconstitution of CMV-specific CTLs (CMV-CTLs) is essential for virus control. During CMV-CTL monitoring using mutated HLA/CMV tetramers selectively detecting high-avidity T cells, we observed coappearance of CMV-CTLs with low (CMV tetlow CTLs) and high tetramer binding (CMV tethigh CTLs) in 53/115 CMV IgG+ patients stem cell transplanted from CMV IgG+ donors. However, the relevance of these coappearing differentially tetramer binding ("dual") CMV-CTLs was unclear. In this study, we investigated the kinetics, properties, and clinical impact of coappearing CMV tetlow and tethigh CTLs after allogeneic SCT. Patients with dual CMV-CTLs had more CMV tethigh than tetlow CTLs. Chimerism analysis of isolated CMV tetlow and tethigh CTLs revealed their exclusive donor origin. CMV tetlow and tethigh CTLs had an identical effector memory CD45RA-CCR7- and CD45RA+CCR7- T cell distribution, equal differentiation, senescence, and exhaustion marker expression and were negative for regulatory CD8+ T cell markers. Isolated CMV tetlow and tethigh CTLs were equally sensitive to CMV peptides in IFN-γ release and cytotoxicity assays. However, CMV tethigh CTLs proliferated more in response to low CMV peptide concentrations than tetlow CTLs. TCR repertoire analysis revealed that CMV tetlow and tethigh CTLs use different TCRs. Finally, dual CMV-CTLs were not associated with CMV antigenemia. In conclusion, these data show for the first time, to our knowledge, that both CMV tetlow and tethigh CTLs are functional effector T cells differing by proliferation, numbers in peripheral blood, and probably by their precursors without increasing the CMV reactivation risk after allogeneic SCT.

Donor-specific alloreactive T cells can be quantified from whole blood, and may predict cellular rejection after renal transplantation.

Preformed cellular alloreactivity can exist prior to transplantation and may contribute to rejection. Here, we used a rapid flow-cytometric whole-blood assay to characterize the extent of alloreactive T cells among 1491 stimulatory reactions from 61 renal transplant candidates and 75 controls. The role of preformed donor-specific alloreactive T cells in cellular rejection was prospectively analyzed in 21 renal transplant recipients. Alloreactive CD8+ T cells were more frequent than respective CD4+ T cells, and these levels were stable over time. CD8+ T cells were effector-memory T cells largely negative for expression of CD27, CD62L, and CCR7, and were susceptible to steroid and calcineurin inhibitor inhibition. Alloreactivity was more frequent in samples with higher number of HLA mismatches. Moreover, the percentage of individuals with alloreactive T cells was higher in transplant candidates than in controls. Among transplant candidates, 5/61 exhibited alloreactive CD8+ T cells against most stimulators, 23/61 toward a limited number of stimulators, and 33/61 did not show any alloreactivity. Among 21 renal transplant recipients followed prospectively, one had donor-specific preformed T-cell alloreactivity. She was the only patient who developed cellular rejection posttransplantation. In conclusion, donor-specific alloreactive T cells may be rapidly quantified from whole blood, and may predict cellular rejection after transplantation.

Chemokine Receptor Ccr7 Restricts Fatal West Nile Virus Encephalitis.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-transmitted flavivirus that can cause debilitating encephalitis. To delineate the mechanisms behind this pathology, we studied Ccr7-deficient mice, which afforded us the capacity to study infection in mice with disrupted peripheral cellular trafficking events. The loss of Ccr7 resulted in an immediate pan-leukocytosis that remained elevated throughout the infection. This leukocytosis resulted in a significant enhancement of leukocyte accumulation within the central nervous system (CNS). Despite an excess of virus-specific T cells in the CNS, Ccr7-deficient mice had significantly higher CNS viral loads and mortality rates than wild-type animals. Mechanistically, the elevated trafficking of infected myeloid cells into the brain in Ccr7-deficient mice resulted in increased levels of WNV in the CNS, thereby effectively contributing to neuroinflammation and lowering viral clearance. Combined, our experiments suggest that during WNV infection, Ccr7 is a gatekeeper for nonspecific viral transference to the brain.IMPORTANCE In this study, we show that Ccr7 is required for the sufficient migration of dendritic cells and T cells into the draining lymph node immediately following infection and for the restriction of leukocyte migration into the brain. Further, the severe loss of dendritic cells in the draining lymph node had no impact on viral replication in this organ, suggesting that WNV may migrate from the skin into the lymph node through another mechanism. Most importantly, we found that the loss of Ccr7 results in a significant leukocytosis, leading to hypercellularity within the CNS, where monocytes/macrophages contribute to CNS viremia, neuroinflammation, and increased mortality. Together, our data point to Ccr7 as a critical host defense restriction factor limiting neuroinflammation during acute viral infection.

CCR7 deficient inflammatory Dendritic Cells are retained in the Central Nervous System.

Dendritic cells (DC) accumulate in the CNS during neuroinflammation, yet, how these cells contribute to CNS antigen drainage is still unknown. We have previously shown that after intracerebral injection, antigen-loaded bone marrow DC migrate to deep cervical lymph nodes where they prime antigen-specific T cells and exacerbate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice. Here, we report that DC migration from brain parenchyma is dependent upon the chemokine receptor CCR7. During EAE, both wild type and CCR7-/- CD11c-eYFP cells infiltrated into the CNS but cells that lacked CCR7 were retained in brain and spinal cord while wild type DC migrated to cervical lymph nodes. Retention of CCR7-deficient CD11c-eYFP cells in the CNS exacerbated EAE. These data are the first to show that CD11chigh DC use CCR7 for migration out of the CNS, and in the absence of this receptor they remain in the CNS in situ and exacerbate EAE.

The chemokine receptor CCR7 promotes mammary tumorigenesis through amplification of stem-like cells.

The chemokine receptor CCR7 is widely implicated in breast cancer pathobiology. Although recent reports correlated high CCR7 levels with more advanced tumor grade and poor prognosis, limited in vivo data are available regarding its specific function in mammary gland neoplasia and the underlying mechanisms involved. To address these questions we generated a bigenic mouse model of breast cancer combined with CCR7 deletion, which revealed that CCR7 ablation results in a considerable delay in tumor onset as well as significantly reduced tumor burden. Importantly, CCR7 was found to exert its function by regulating mammary cancer stem-like cells in both murine and human tumors. In vivo experiments showed that loss of CCR7 activity either through deletion or pharmacological antagonism significantly decreased functional pools of stem-like cells in mouse primary mammary tumors, providing a mechanistic explanation for the tumor-promoting role of this chemokine receptor. These data characterize the oncogenic properties of CCR7 in mammary epithelial neoplasia and point to a new route for therapeutic intervention to target evasive cancer stem cells.

Hyaluronan Binding Identifies a Functionally Distinct Alveolar Macrophage-like Population in Bone Marrow-Derived Dendritic Cell Cultures.

Although classical dendritic cells (DCs) arise from distinct progenitors in the bone marrow, the origin of inflammatory DCs and the distinction between monocyte-derived DCs and macrophages is less clear. In vitro culture of mouse bone marrow cells with GM-CSF is a well-established method to generate DCs, but GM-CSF has also been used to generate bone marrow-derived macrophages. In this article, we identify a distinct subpopulation of cells within the GM-CSF bone marrow-derived DC culture based on their ability to bind hyaluronan (HA), a major component of the extracellular matrix and ligand for CD44. HA identified a morphologically distinct subpopulation of cells within the immature DC population (CD11c(+) MHC II(mid/low)) that were CCR5(+)/CCR7(-) and proliferated in response to GM-CSF, but, unlike immature DCs, did not develop into mature DCs expressing CCR7 and high levels of MHC II, even after stimulation with LPS. The majority of these cells produced TNF-α in response to LPS but were unable to activate naive T cells, whereas the majority of mature DCs produced IL-12 and activated naive T cells. This HA binding population shared many characteristics with alveolar macrophages and was retained in the alveolar space after lung instillation even after LPS stimulation, whereas the MHC II(high) mature DCs were found in the draining lymph node. Thus, HA binding in combination with MHC II expression can be used to identify alveolar-like macrophages from GM-CSF-treated bone marrow cultures, which provides a useful in vitro model to study alveolar macrophages.

Chemokine receptor CCR7 regulates the intestinal TH1/TH17/Treg balance during Crohn's-like murine ileitis.

The regulation of T cell and DC retention and lymphatic egress within and from the intestine is critical for intestinal immunosurveillance; however, the cellular processes that orchestrate this balance during IBD remain poorly defined. With the use of a mouse model of TNF-driven Crohn's-like ileitis (TNF(Δ) (ARE)), we examined the role of CCR7 in the control of intestinal T cell and DC retention/egress during experimental CD. We observed that the frequency of CCR7-expressing TH1/TH17 effector lymphocytes increased during active disease in TNF(Δ) (ARE) mice and that ΔARE/CCR7(-/-) mice developed exacerbated ileitis and multiorgan inflammation, with a marked polarization and ileal retention of TH1 effector CD4(+) T cells. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of ΔARE/CCR7(-/-) effector CD4(+) into lymphopenic hosts resulted in ileo-colitis, whereas those transferred with ΔARE/CCR7(+/+) CD4(+) T cells developed ileitis. ΔARE/CCR7(-/-) mice had an acellular draining MLN, decreased CD103(+) DC, and decreased expression of RALDH enzymes and of CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+) Tregs. Lastly, a mAb against CCR7 exacerbated ileitis in TNF(Δ) (ARE) mice, phenocopying the effects of congenital CCR7 deficiency. Our data underscore a critical role for the lymphoid chemokine receptor CCR7 in orchestrating immune cell traffic and TH1 versus TH17 bias during chronic murine ileitis.

Early coupled up-regulation of interleukin-12 receptor beta-1 in CD8+ central memory and effector T cells for better clinical outcomes in liver transplant recipients.

This study aimed to investigate the role of initial priming of interleukin (IL)-12 receptor beta-1 in CD8(+) central memory T cells (initial IL-12RTCM priming) and CCR7-negative subsets (CNS) in effector cell expansion and clinical outcome after living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). One hundred and six patients who underwent LDLT were classified into the following three groups according to hierarchical clustering of CD8(+) CD45 isoforms before LDLT: I, naive-dominant; II, effector memory-dominant; and III, effector-dominant. The pre-existing CD8(+) effector cells (TE ) and activated immune status increased progressively from group I to group II to group III. Groups I, II and III received tacrolimus (Tac)/glucocorticoid (GC) regimens. Eighteen group III recipients received Tac/mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and were defined as group IV. Initial IL-12RTCM priming was slightly, moderately and markedly decreased in droups I, II, and III, respectively. Initial priming of IL-12Rß1 in CNS was decreased markedly in the three groups with marked decreases of TE , perforin and interferon (IFN)-γ; all parameters were restored by up-regulation of IL-12Rß1(+) TCM through the self-renewal of TCM . The lag time required until coupled up-regulation of IL-12Rß1 of TCM and CNS to above baseline was 12, 20 and 32 days in groups I, II and III, respectively. Inferior clinical outcomes were associated with increasing lag time. In contrast, the initial priming of IL-12Rß1 in TCM and CNS remained above baseline in group IV due to MMF-mediated increase of IL-12Rß1. Early coupled up-regulation of TCM and CNS leads to efficient TE differentiation and optimal clinical outcomes.

Tracking and quantification of dendritic cell migration and antigen trafficking between the skin and lymph nodes.

Skin-derived dendritic cells (DCs) play a crucial role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis due to their role in antigen trafficking from the skin to the draining lymph nodes (dLNs). To quantify the spatiotemporal regulation of skin-derived DCs in vivo, we generated knock-in mice expressing the photoconvertible fluorescent protein KikGR. By exposing the skin or dLN of these mice to violet light, we were able to label and track the migration and turnover of endogenous skin-derived DCs. Langerhans cells and CD103(+)DCs, including Langerin(+)CD103(+)dermal DCs (DDCs), remained in the dLN for 4-4.5 days after migration from the skin, while CD103(-)DDCs persisted for only two days. Application of a skin irritant (chemical stress) induced a transient >10-fold increase in CD103(-)DDC migration from the skin to the dLN. Tape stripping (mechanical injury) induced a long-lasting four-fold increase in CD103(-)DDC migration to the dLN and accelerated the trafficking of exogenous protein antigens by these cells. Both stresses increased the turnover of CD103(-)DDCs within the dLN, causing these cells to die within one day of arrival. Therefore, CD103(-)DDCs act as sentinels against skin invasion that respond with increased cellular migration and antigen trafficking from the skin to the dLNs.

Differential requirement for CCR4 and CCR7 during the development of innate and adaptive αßT cells in the adult thymus.

αßT cell development depends upon serial migration of thymocyte precursors through cortical and medullary microenvironments, enabling specialized stromal cells to provide important signals at specific stages of their development. Although conventional αßT cells are subject to clonal deletion in the medulla, entry into the thymus medulla also fosters αßT cell differentiation. For example, during postnatal periods, the medulla is involved in the intrathymic generation of multiple αßT cell lineages, notably the induction of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cell development and the completion of invariant NKT cell development. Although migration of conventional αßT cells to the medulla is mediated by the chemokine receptor CCR7, how other T cell subsets gain access to medullary areas during their normal development is not clear. In this study, we show that combining a panel of thymocyte maturation markers with cell surface analysis of CCR7 and CCR4 identifies distinct stages in the development of multiple αßT cell lineages in the thymus. Although Aire regulates expression of the CCR4 ligands CCL17 and CCL22, we show that CCR4 is dispensable for thymocyte migration and development in the adult thymus, demonstrating defective T cell development in Aire(-/-) mice is not because of a loss of CCR4-mediated migration. Moreover, we reveal that CCR7 controls the development of invariant NKT cells by enabling their access to IL-15 trans-presentation in the thymic medulla and influences the balance of early and late intrathymic stages of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cell development. Collectively, our data identify novel roles for CCR7 during intrathymic T cell development, highlighting its importance in enabling multiple αßT cell lineages to access the thymic medulla.

CXCR4 is dispensable for T cell egress from chronically inflamed skin via the afferent lymph.

T cell recirculation through extralymphoid tissues is essential to immune surveillance, host defense and inflammation. In this process, T cells enter the tissue from the blood and subsequently leave via the afferent lymph. In the absence of inflammation, T cells require CCR7 expression to egress from the skin or lung, which is consistent with the constitutive expression of the CCR7 ligand CCL21 on lymphatic endothelium. However, during chronic inflammation alternative chemoattractants come into play, allowing Ccr7-deficient (Ccr7-/-) T cells to egress efficiently from affected skin. As T cell egress from inflamed sites is a potential control point of the inflammatory response, we aimed to determine alternative T cell exit receptors using a mouse and a sheep model. We show that CCR7+ and CCR7- T cells exiting from the chronically inflamed skin were highly responsive to the CXCR4 ligand CXCL12, which was induced in the lymphatics in the inflamed site. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that CXCR4 mediates T cell egress from inflamed skin. However, pharmacological inhibition of CXCR4 did not affect the tissue egress of wildtype or Ccr7-/- CD4 and CD8 T cells after adoptive transfer into chronically inflamed skin. Similarly, adoptively transferred Cxcr4-/- Ccr7-/- and Ccr7-/- T cells egressed from the inflamed skin equally well. Based on these data, we conclude that, while CXCR4 might play an essential role for other cell types that enter the afferent lymphatics, it is dispensable for T cell egress from the chronically inflamed skin.

Effects of chemokine receptor signalling on cognition-like, emotion-like and sociability behaviours of CCR6 and CCR7 knockout mice.

Inflammation is regarded as an important mechanism of neuropsychiatric disorders. Chemokines, which are a part of the immune system, have effects on various aspects of brain function, but little is known about their effects on behaviour. We have compared the cognition-like behaviour (learning and spatial memory) of CCR6(-/-) and CCR7(-/-) mice with wild type (WT) C57BL/6 mice, in the Barnes maze, as well as a range of other behaviours, including exploratory, anxiety and depression-like behaviour, using a battery of tests. Levels of cytokines TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 were also measured. In the Barnes maze, CCR7(-/-) mice were shown to take longer to learn the location of the escape box on the 1st of 4 days of training. In the behavioural battery, CCR6(-/-) mice showed higher locomotor activity and lower anxiety in the open field test, and a lack of preference for social novelty in a sociability test. CCR7(-/-) mice behaved much like WT mice, although showed higher anxiety in Elevated Zero Maze. While baseline saccharin preference in a 2-bottle choice test, a test for anhedonia depression-like behaviour, was equal in all strains at baseline, weekly tests showed that both CCR6(-/-) and CCR7(-/-) mice developed a decreased preference for saccharin compared to WT over time. There were no differences between strains in any of the cytokines measured. These results suggest that chemokine receptors may play a role in cognition and learning behaviour, as well as anxiety and other behaviours, although the biological mechanisms are still unclear.