A novel receptor for platelet-activating factor and lysophosphatidylcholine in Trypanosoma cruzi.

The lipid mediators, platelet-activating factor (PAF) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), play relevant pathophysiological roles in Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Several species of LPC, including C18:1 LPC, which mimics the effects of PAF, are synthesized by T. cruzi. The present study identified a receptor in T. cruzi, which was predicted to bind to PAF, and found it to be homologous to members of the progestin and adiponectin family of receptors (PAQRs). We constructed a three-dimensional model of the T. cruzi PAQR (TcPAQR) and performed molecular docking to predict the interactions of the TcPAQR model with C16:0 PAF and C18:1 LPC. We knocked out T. cruzi PAQR (TcPAQR) gene and confirmed the identity of the expressed protein through immunoblotting and immunofluorescence assays using an anti-human PAQR antibody. Wild-type and knockout (KO) parasites were also used to investigate the in vitro cell differentiation and interactions with peritoneal mouse macrophages; TcPAQR KO parasites were unable to react to C16:0 PAF or C18:1 LPC. Our data are highly suggestive that PAF and LPC act through TcPAQR in T. cruzi, triggering its cellular differentiation and ability to infect macrophages.

Human adiponectin receptor AdipoR1 assumes closed and open structures.

The human adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, are key anti-diabetic molecules. We previously reported the crystal structures of human AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, revealing that their seven transmembrane helices form an internal closed cavity (the closed form). In this study, we determined the crystal structure of the D208A variant AdipoR1, which is fully active with respect to the major downstream signaling. Among the three molecules in the asymmetric unit, two assume the closed form, and the other adopts the open form with large openings in the internal cavity. Between the closed- and open-form structures, helices IV and V are tilted with their intracellular ends shifted by about 4 and 11 Å, respectively. Furthermore, we reanalyzed our previous wild-type AdipoR1 diffraction data, and determined a 44:56 mixture of the closed and open forms, respectively. Thus, we have clarified the closed-open interconversion of AdipoR1, which may be relevant to its functional mechanism(s).

Characterization of Three Osmotin-Like Proteins from Plumeria rubra and Prospection for Adiponectin Peptidomimetics.

BACKGROUND: Osmotin-Like Proteins (OLPs) have been purified and characterized from different plant tissues, including latex fluids. Besides its defensive role, tobacco osmotin seems to induce adiponectin-like physiological effects, acting as an agonist. However, molecular information about this agonistic effect on adiponectin receptors has been poorly exploited and other osmotins have not been investigated yet. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: The present study involved the characterization of three OLPs from Plumeria rubra latex and molecular docking studies to evaluate the interaction between them and adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2). RESULTS: P. rubra Osmotin-Like Proteins (PrOLPs) exhibited molecular masses from 21 to 25 kDa and isoelectric points ranging from 4.4 to 7.7. The proteins have 16 cysteine residues, which are involved in eight disulfide bonds, conserved in the same positions as other plant OLPs. The threedimensional (3D) models exhibited the three typical domains of OLPs, and molecular docking analysis showed that two PrOLP peptides interacted with two adiponectin receptors similarly to tobacco osmotin peptide. CONCLUSION: As observed for tobacco osmotin, the latex osmotins of P. rubra exhibited compatible interactions with adiponectin receptors. Therefore, these plant defense proteins (without known counterparts in humans) are potential tools to study modulation of glucose metabolism in type II diabetes, where adiponectin plays a pivotal role in homeostasis.

7TM proteins are not necessarily GPCRs.

In this review article, we summarize the current knowledge on a large and diverse superfamily of seven-pass transmembrane proteins functionally independent from the GPCR superfamily. We include the newest research findings about their physiological roles and their mechanism of action. In particular, we concentrate on the structural basis for the newly discovered amide hydrolase activity, with a focus on adiponectin receptors for which structures are available. Finally, we discuss the remaining challenges in understanding the activation and signaling of these intramembrane proteins and suggest how regulation of the amide hydrolase activity may help in development of new therapeutic agents.

Structure of a human intramembrane ceramidase explains enzymatic dysfunction found in leukodystrophy.

Alkaline ceramidases (ACERs) are a class of poorly understood transmembrane enzymes controlling the homeostasis of ceramides. They are implicated in human pathophysiology, including progressive leukodystrophy, colon cancer as well as acute myeloid leukemia. We report here the crystal structure of the human ACER type 3 (ACER3). Together with computational studies, the structure reveals that ACER3 is an intramembrane enzyme with a seven transmembrane domain architecture and a catalytic Zn2+ binding site in its core, similar to adiponectin receptors. Interestingly, we uncover a Ca2+ binding site physically and functionally connected to the Zn2+ providing a structural explanation for the known regulatory role of Ca2+ on ACER3 enzymatic activity and for the loss of function in E33G-ACER3 mutant found in leukodystrophic patients.

Discovery of a novel potent peptide agonist to adiponectin receptor 1.

Activation of adiponectin receptors (AdipoRs) by its natural ligand, adiponectin has been known to be involved in modulating critical metabolic processes such as glucose metabolism and fatty acid oxidation as demonstrated by a number of in vitro and in vivo studies over last two decades. These findings suggest that AdipoRs' agonists could be developed into a potential therapeutic agent for metabolic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, especially for type II diabetes, a long-term metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Because of limitations in production of biologically active adiponectin, adiponectin-mimetic AdipoRs' agonists have been suggested as alternative ways to expand the opportunity to develop anti-diabetic agents. Based on crystal structure of AdipoR1, we designed AdipoR1's peptide agonists using protein-peptide docking simulation and screened their receptor binding abilities and biological functions via surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and biological analysis. Three candidate peptides, BHD1028, BHD43, and BHD44 were selected and confirmed to activate AdipoR1-mediated signal pathways. In order to enhance the stability and solubility of peptide agonists, candidate peptides were PEGylated. PEGylated BHD1028 exhibited its biological activity at nano-molar concentration and could be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of diabetes. Also, SPR and virtual screening techniques utilized in this study may potentially be applied to other peptide-drug screening processes against membrane receptor proteins.

Ctrp9 and adiponectin receptors in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): Molecular cloning, tissue distribution and effects on reproductive genes.

As the close paralog of adiponectin, C1q/TNF-Related Protein 9 (CTRP9) has been reported to be involved in the regulation of glucose and fat metabolism, immunization and endothelial cell functions. However, information regarding the actions of Ctrp9 on reproduction is extremely limited in fish. As a first step, Ctrp9, adiponectin receptor 1 (Adipor1) and Adipor2 were identified from Nile tilapia. The open reading frame (ORF) of ctrp9 was 1020 bp which encoded a 339 amino acids. Moreover, the ORFs of adipor1 and adipor2 were 1131 bp and 1134 bp encoding 376 and 377 amino acids, respectively. Tissue distribution showed that ctrp9 mRNA levels were highest in the kidney in both sexes. And, the expression of adipor1 and adipor2 were widely distributed in all tissues examined, exhibiting high levels in the brain, gonad, gut and stomach. In addition, intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of gCtrp9 (globular Ctrp9) suppressed the hypothalamic expression of gnrh2 (gonadotropin-releasing hormone 2) and gnrh3, as well as gthα (gonadotropic hormone α), fshß (follicle-stimulating hormone ß), lhß (luteinizing hormone ß), lhr (LH receptor) and fshr (FSH receptor) mRNA levels in the pituitary. The mRNA levels of adipor1, but not adipor2, in the gonads were also inhibited after injection. Moreover, the levels of serum E2 (estrogen) in female and T (testosterone) in male were significantly decreased after injection of gCtrp9. Overall, our data provides novel data indicating, for the first time, a regulatory effect of CTRP9 on teleost reproduction.

Structural insights into adiponectin receptors suggest ceramidase activity.

Adiponectin receptors (ADIPORs) are integral membrane proteins that control glucose and lipid metabolism by mediating, at least in part, a cellular ceramidase activity that catalyses the hydrolysis of ceramide to produce sphingosine and a free fatty acid (FFA). The crystal structures of the two receptor subtypes, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2, show a similar overall seven-transmembrane-domain architecture with large unoccupied cavities and a zinc binding site within the seven transmembrane domain. However, the molecular mechanisms by which ADIPORs function are not known. Here we describe the crystal structure of ADIPOR2 bound to a FFA molecule and show that ADIPOR2 possesses intrinsic basal ceramidase activity that is enhanced by adiponectin. We also identify a ceramide binding pose and propose a possible mechanism for the hydrolytic activity of ADIPOR2 using computational approaches. In molecular dynamics simulations, the side chains of residues coordinating the zinc rearrange quickly to promote the nucleophilic attack of a zinc-bound hydroxide ion onto the ceramide amide carbonyl. Furthermore, we present a revised ADIPOR1 crystal structure exhibiting a seven-transmembrane-domain architecture that is clearly distinct from that of ADIPOR2. In this structure, no FFA is observed and the ceramide binding pocket and putative zinc catalytic site are exposed to the inner membrane leaflet. ADIPOR1 also possesses intrinsic ceramidase activity, so we suspect that the two distinct structures may represent key steps in the enzymatic activity of ADIPORs. The ceramidase activity is low, however, and further studies will be required to characterize fully the enzymatic parameters and substrate specificity of ADIPORs. These insights into ADIPOR function will enable the structure-based design of potent modulators of these clinically relevant enzymes.

Impacts of Nonsynonymous Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Adiponectin Receptor 1 Gene on Corresponding Protein Stability: A Computational Approach.

Despite the reported association of adiponectin receptor 1 (ADIPOR1) gene mutations with vulnerability to several human metabolic diseases, there is lack of computational analysis on the functional and structural impacts of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the human ADIPOR1 at protein level. Therefore, sequence- and structure-based computational tools were employed in this study to functionally and structurally characterize the coding nsSNPs of ADIPOR1 gene listed in the dbSNP database. Our in silico analysis by SIFT, nsSNPAnalyzer, PolyPhen-2, Fathmm, I-Mutant 2.0, SNPs&GO, PhD-SNP, PANTHER, and SNPeffect tools identified the nsSNPs with distorting functional impacts, namely, rs765425383 (A348G), rs752071352 (H341Y), rs759555652 (R324L), rs200326086 (L224F), and rs766267373 (L143P) from 74 nsSNPs of ADIPOR1 gene. Finally the aforementioned five deleterious nsSNPs were introduced using Swiss-PDB Viewer package within the X-ray crystal structure of ADIPOR1 protein, and changes in free energy for these mutations were computed. Although increased free energy was observed for all the mutants, the nsSNP H341Y caused the highest energy increase amongst all. RMSD and TM scores predicted that mutants were structurally similar to wild type protein. Our analyses suggested that the aforementioned variants especially H341Y could directly or indirectly destabilize the amino acid interactions and hydrogen bonding networks of ADIPOR1.

AdipoRon: a possible drug for colorectal cancer prevention?

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is in the third place of the most common cancers. Certain risk factors can increase the development of CRC, including diet and inheritance. Several studies have shown that there is a potential link between obesity and CRC. Adipose tissue is known to be a largest endocrine organ in the body, with the ability to produce various cytokines including adiponectin. Two types of adiponectin receptor, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, have been detected in various cancer tissues such as CRC. There is mounting evidence that AdipoR1 signaling occurs mainly through 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and adiponectin inhibits colorectal cancer cell growth via activation of AMPK, thereby suppression of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Thus, adiponectin replacement-based therapies may represent a novel approach in CRC cell growth inhibition in early stages. AdipoRon is an adiponectin-like synthetic small molecule that activated both adiponectin receptors 1 and 2. We hypothesize that AdipoRon has antiproliferative effects of adiponectin and may suppress the CRC cell growth. With clarification of this drug's role in CRC, it can be used as chemoprevention in patients at risk of developing the disease.

Characterisation of the adiponectin receptors: Differential cell-surface expression and temporal signalling profiles of AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 are regulated by the non-conserved N-terminal trunks.

The adiponectin axis regulates cardiometabolic and inflammatory tone making it an attractive therapeutic focus. Rudimentary understanding of the adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, constrains our ability to target these atypical seven trans-membrane proteins. Here, we aimed to further elaborate the molecular details governing cell-surface expression and signal transduction by transient expression of AdipoR1 or AdipoR2 in HEK293 cells. Following serum starvation, adiponectin reduced cell-surface expression of both receptors, consistent with internalisation, and promoted phosphorylation of downstream effectors. Temporal phosphorylation profiles differed with AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 transduced signals peaking at 15 min and 24 h. Analysis of receptor chimeras showed that the non-conserved N-terminal trunks (AdipoR1(1-70) and AdipoR2(1-81)) define the temporal signalling profiles and contain multiple regions that promote or inhibit cell-surface expression, respectively. These findings highlight the importance of the non-conserved N-terminal trunks and demonstrate that cell-surface expression of AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 is required for effective coupling to downstream effectors.

Crystal structures of the human adiponectin receptors.

Adiponectin stimulation of its receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, increases the activities of 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), respectively, thereby contributing to healthy longevity as key anti-diabetic molecules. AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 were predicted to contain seven transmembrane helices with the opposite topology to G-protein-coupled receptors. Here we report the crystal structures of human AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 at 2.9 and 2.4 Å resolution, respectively, which represent a novel class of receptor structure. The seven-transmembrane helices, conformationally distinct from those of G-protein-coupled receptors, enclose a large cavity where three conserved histidine residues coordinate a zinc ion. The zinc-binding structure may have a role in the adiponectin-stimulated AMPK phosphorylation and UCP2 upregulation. Adiponectin may broadly interact with the extracellular face, rather than the carboxy-terminal tail, of the receptors. The present information will facilitate the understanding of novel structure-function relationships and the development and optimization of AdipoR agonists for the treatment of obesity-related diseases, such as type 2 diabetes.

Expression, purification, crystallization, and preliminary X-ray crystallographic studies of the human adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2.

The adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2) are membrane proteins with seven transmembrane helices. These receptors regulate glucose and fatty acid metabolism, thereby ameliorating type 2 diabetes. The full-length human AdipoR1 and a series of N-terminally truncated mutants of human AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 were expressed in insect cells. In small-scale size exclusion chromatography, the truncated mutants AdipoR1Δ88 (residues 89-375) and AdipoR2Δ99 (residues 100-386) eluted mostly in the intact monodisperse state, while the others eluted primarily as aggregates. However, gel filtration chromatography of the large-scale preparation of the tag-affinity-purified AdipoR1Δ88 revealed the presence of an excessive amount of the aggregated state over the intact state. Since aggregation due to contaminating nucleic acids may have occurred during the sample concentration step, anion-exchange column chromatography was performed immediately after affinity chromatography, to separate the intact AdipoR1Δ88 from the aggregating species. The separated intact AdipoR1Δ88 did not undergo further aggregation, and was successfully purified to homogeneity by gel filtration chromatography. The purified AdipoR1Δ88 and AdipoR2Δ99 proteins were characterized by thermostability assays with 7-diethylamino-3-(4-maleimidophenyl)-4-methyl coumarin, thin layer chromatography of bound lipids, and surface plasmon resonance analysis of ligand binding, demonstrating their structural integrities. The AdipoR1Δ88 and AdipoR2Δ99 proteins were crystallized with the anti-AdipoR1 monoclonal antibody Fv fragment, by the lipidic mesophase method. X-ray diffraction data sets were obtained at resolutions of 2.8 and 2.4 Å, respectively.

MicroRNA-218 targets adiponectin receptor 2 to regulate adiponectin signaling.

Adiponectin exerts an antidiabetic function through the adiponectin receptors 1 and 2 (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2). The mechanism regulating the expression of adiponectin receptors remains to be elucidated. Bioinformatics analysis demonstrated that microRNA (miR)­218 targets the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of the AdipoR2 mRNA. The present study aimed to investigate whether miR-218 regulated the expression of AdipoR2 using immunoblotting, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction and luciferase assays. The protein level and the mRNA level of AdipoR2 were reduced when miR­218 was expressed in HepG2 cells. Additionally, overexpression of miR­218 repressed the activity of a luciferase reporter containing the 3'UTR of AdipoR2. Furthermore, the present study aimed to determine whether miR-218 regulated glucose metabolism through detecting signaling pathways and glucose uptake. The phosphorylation of AMP­activated protein kinase and p38 mitogen­activated protein kinase was reduced in miR­218­expressing cells. In addition, miR­218 inhibited adiponectin­induced glucose uptake. The present results suggested that miR­218 targets AdipoR2 to inhibit adiponectin signaling.

Adiponectin receptors: a review of their structure, function and how they work.

The discovery of adiponectin and subsequently the receptors it acts upon have lead to a great surge forward in the understanding of the development of insulin resistance and obesity-linked diseases. Adiponectin is a hormone that is derived from adipose tissue and is reduced in obesity-linked diseases including insulin resistance/type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis. Adiponectin exerts its effects by binding to adiponectin receptors, two of which, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, have been cloned. This has enabled researchers to carry out detailed studies elucidating the role played by these receptors and the metabolic pathways that are involved following their activation. Such studies have clearly shown that the stimulation of these receptors is associated with glucose homeostasis and ongoing research into their role will clarify the underlying molecular mechanisms of adiponectin. Such knowledge can then be used to provide therapeutic targets aimed at managing obesity-linked diseases including type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.

RNA-binding protein PTB and microRNA-221 coregulate AdipoR1 translation and adiponectin signaling.

Adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1) mediates adiponectin's pleiotropic effects in muscle and liver and plays an important role in the regulation of insulin resistance and diabetes. Here, we demonstrate a pivotal role for microRNA-221 (miR-221) and the RNA-binding protein polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB) in posttranscriptional regulation of AdipoR1 during muscle differentiation and in obesity. RNA-immunoprecipitation and luciferase reporter assays illustrated that both PTB and miR-221 bind AdipoR1-3'UTR and cooperatively inhibit AdipoR1 translation. Depletion of PTB or miR-221 increased, while overexpression of these factors decreased, AdipoR1 protein synthesis in both muscle and liver cells. During myogenesis, downregulation of PTB and miR-221 robustly induced AdipoR1 translation, providing a mechanism for enhanced AdipoR1 protein expression and activation in differentiated muscle cells. In addition, since both PTB and miR-221 are upregulated in liver and muscle of genetic and dietary mouse models of obesity, this novel translational mechanism may be at least partly responsible for the reduction in AdipoR1 protein levels in obesity. These findings highlight the importance of translational control in regulating AdipoR1 protein expression and adiponectin signaling. Given that adiponectin is reduced in obesity, induction of AdipoR1 could potentially enhance adiponectin beneficial effects and ameliorate insulin resistance and diabetes.

Identification of adipokine receptor agonists and turning them to antagonists.

Receptor-ligand interactions represent one of the most basic processes in biological systems. Receptor activation and deactivation induce or prevent a series of downstream signaling events that ultimately result in normal or abnormal cellular functions. Contemporary biology is in continuous search for the identification of novel receptors and their ligands. The adipose tissue participates in the regulation of energy homeostasis as an important endocrine organ that secretes a number of biologically active adipokines, including leptin and adiponectin. A recent discovery and design process for leptin and adiponectin receptor response modifier peptides can be generalized to a series of transmembrane receptor ligands. A family of 11-13 amino acid residue-long leptin receptor (ObR) agonists has been identified by analyzing the effect of peptides corresponding to the three presumed active sites of leptin on the growth of leptin-responsive cancer cells. In the case of adiponectin, overlapping peptides were walked across the entire globular domain of the protein to identify the active site and derive adiponectin receptor (AdipoR) agonist peptides. In both sets, native residues were replaced by nonnatural analogs to improve the pharmacological properties including stability, efficacy and targeting. Later the ObR analogs were converted into true ObR antagonists that show antagonist-agonist selectivity of 1,000 in cellular assays. The design process of ObR antagonists included shortening of the peptide length and incorporating additional nonnatural residues. Here I take a look into this receptor agonist and antagonist discovery process from a practical point of view.

Drosophila adiponectin receptor in insulin producing cells regulates glucose and lipid metabolism by controlling insulin secretion.

Adipokines secreted from adipose tissue are key regulators of metabolism in animals. Adiponectin, one of the adipokines, modulates pancreatic beta cell function to maintain energy homeostasis. Recently, significant conservation between Drosophila melanogaster and mammalian metabolism has been discovered. Drosophila insulin like peptides (Dilps) regulate energy metabolism similarly to mammalian insulin. However, in Drosophila, the regulatory mechanism of insulin producing cells (IPCs) by adipokine signaling is largely unknown. Here, we describe the discovery of the Drosophila adiponectin receptor and its function in IPCs. Drosophila adiponectin receptor (dAdipoR) has high homology with the human adiponectin receptor 1. The dAdipoR antibody staining revealed that dAdipoR was expressed in IPCs of larval and adult brains. IPC- specific dAdipoR inhibition (Dilp2>dAdipoR-Ri) showed the increased sugar level in the hemolymph and the elevated triglyceride level in whole body. Dilps mRNA levels in the Dilp2>dAdipoR-Ri flies were similar with those of controls. However, in the Dilp2>dAdipoR-Ri flies, Dilp2 protein was accumulated in IPCs, the level of circulating Dilp2 was decreased, and insulin signaling was reduced in the fat body. In ex vivo fly brain culture with the human adiponectin, Dilp2 was secreted from IPCs. These results indicate that adiponectin receptor in insulin producing cells regulates insulin secretion and controls glucose and lipid metabolism in Drosophila melanogaster. This study demonstrates a new adipokine signaling in Drosophila and provides insights for the mammalian adiponectin receptor function in pancreatic beta cells, which could be useful for therapeutic application.