Design of Novel Imidazopyrazine Derivative against Breast Cancer via Targeted NPY1R Antagonist.

INTRODUCTION: Breast cancer is the most frequent malignancy in women with more than one in ten new cancer diagnoses each year. Synthetic products are a key source for the identification of new anticancer medicines and drug leads. OBJECTIVES: Imidazopyrazine is a highly favored skeleton for the design of new anticancer drugs. In silico designed derivatives were screened using computer aided drug design techniques and validated using MTT assay. METHODS: A template-based methodology was used in the current work to create novel Imidazopyrazine derivatives, targeting the NPY1R protein. Molecular docking, Diffusion docking, MD simulation, MM-GBSA and meta-dynamics techniques were followed. MTT assay was performed to validate the activity of principal compound. RESULTS: A docking score of -6.660 and MMGBSA value of -108.008 (+/-) 9.14 kcal/mol was obtained from the investigations conducted. In addition, molecular dynamics simulation was carried out for 500 ns, yielding a stable RMSD and value of 5.6 Å, thus providing insights on the stability of the protein conformation on interaction with the principal compound. Furthermore, the in vivo validation studies conducted via MTT assay showed an IC50 value of 73.45 (+/-) 0.45 µg /mL. CONCLUSION: The research has produced encouraging findings and can be applied as a model for precise enumerations in the future. It also encourages the study of novel synthetic compounds with potential anti-cancer properties.

Intracolonic Neuropeptide Y Y1 Receptor Inhibition Attenuates Intestinal Inflammation in Murine Colitis and Cytokine Release in IBD Biopsies.

We have demonstrated that neuropeptide Y (NPY) can regulate pro-inflammatory signaling in the gut via cross-talk with the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Here, we investigated if selective blocking of NPY receptors, NPY1R or NPY2R, using small molecule non-peptide antagonists (BIBP-3222 for NPY1R and BIIE-0246 for NPY2R) in the colon could attenuate intestinal inflammation by lowering TNF levels (BIBP - N-[(1R)]-4-[(Aminoiminomethyl)amino-1-[[[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl]amino]carbonyl]butyl-α-phenylbenzeneacetamide; BIIE - N-[(1S)-4-[(Aminoiminomethyl)amino]-1-[[[2-(3,5-dioxo-1,2-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazolidin-4-yl)ethyl]amino]carbonyl]butyl]-1-[2-[4-(6,11-dihydro-6-oxo-5H-dibenz[b,e]azepin-11-yl)-1-piperazinyl]-2-oxoethyl]-cyclopentaneacetamide). Colitis was induced using dextran sodium sulfate in drinking water for 7 days, or by adoptive T-cell transfer in RAG-/- mice. Colonic biopsies from healthy subjects (n = 10) and IBD patients (n = 34, UC = 20, CD = 14) were cultured ex vivo in presence or absence of NPY antagonists (100 µM, 20 h), and cytokine release into culture supernatants was measured by ELISA. Intracolonic administration of BIBP (but not BIIE) significantly reduced clinical, endoscopic, and histological scores, and serum TNF, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-12p70 in DSS colitis; it also significantly attenuated histological damage and serum IL-6 in T-cell colitis (P < .05). Intracolonic administration of BIBP significantly reduced TNF and interferon (IFN)-γ release from UC biopsies, whereas BIIE downregulated only IFN-γ (P < .05). BIBP significantly reduced TNF and interferon (IFN)-γ release from UC biopsies, whereas BIIE downregulated only IFN-γ (P < .05). Our data suggest a promising therapeutic value for NPY1R inhibition in alleviating intestinal inflammation in UC, possibly as enemas to IBD patients.

Restraint stress potentiates neuropeptide Y-mediated impairment on spatial memory in rats.

Memory is the ability to store, retrieve and use information that requires a progressive time-dependent stabilization process known as consolidation to be established. The hippocampus is essential for processing all the information that forms memory, especially spatial memory. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) affects memory, so in this study we investigated the participation and recruitment of NPY receptors during spatial memory consolidation in rats. Using the water maze test, we show that NPY (1 pmol) injected into the dorsal hippocampus impaired memory consolidation and that previous restraint stress (30 min) potentiates NPY effects, i.e. further impaired memory consolidation. Using selective antagonists for NPY Y1 and Y2 receptors we demonstrate that both receptors play a key role on spatial memory consolidation. Our data suggest that NPY modulates aversive and adaptive memory formation by NPY receptors activation.

Neuropeptide Y1 receptor antagonism protects ß-cells and improves glycemic control in type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVES: Loss of functional ß-cell mass is a key factor contributing to poor glycemic control in advanced type 2 diabetes (T2D). We have previously reported that the inhibition of the neuropeptide Y1 receptor improves the islet transplantation outcome in type 1 diabetes (T1D). The aim of this study was to identify the pathophysiological role of the neuropeptide Y (NPY) system in human T2D and further evaluate the therapeutic potential of using the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 to improve ß-cell function and survival in T2D. METHODS: The gene expression of the NPY system in human islets from nondiabetic subjects and subjects with T2D was determined and correlated with the stimulation index. The glucose-lowering and ß-cell-protective effects of BIBO3304, a selective orally bioavailable Y1 receptor antagonist, in high-fat diet (HFD)/multiple low-dose streptozotocin (STZ)-induced and genetically obese (db/db) T2D mouse models were assessed. RESULTS: In this study, we identified a more than 2-fold increase in NPY1R and its ligand, NPY mRNA expression in human islets from subjects with T2D, which was significantly associated with reduced insulin secretion. Consistently, the pharmacological inhibition of Y1 receptors by BIBO3304 significantly protected ß cells from dysfunction and death under multiple diabetogenic conditions in islets. In a preclinical study, we demonstrated that the inhibition of Y1 receptors by BIBO3304 led to reduced adiposity and enhanced insulin action in the skeletal muscle. Importantly, the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 treatment also improved ß-cell function and preserved functional ß-cell mass, thereby resulting in better glycemic control in both HFD/multiple low-dose STZ-induced and db/db T2D mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our results revealed a novel causal link between increased islet NPY-Y1 receptor gene expression and ß-cell dysfunction and failure in human T2D, contributing to the understanding of the pathophysiology of T2D. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that the inhibition of the Y1 receptor by BIBO3304 represents a potential ß-cell-protective therapy for improving functional ß-cell mass and glycemic control in T2D.

Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Heterocyclic Anticancer Compounds with Multiple Biological Targets.

Cancer is a complex group of diseases initiated by abnormal cell division with the potential of spreading to other parts of the body. The advancement in the discoveries of omics and bio- and cheminformatics has led to the identification of drugs inhibiting putative targets including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family receptors, fibroblast growth factors (FGF), platelet derived growth factors (PDGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), thymidine phosphorylase (TP), and neuropeptide Y4 (NY4), amongst others. Drug resistance, systemic toxicity, and drug ineffectiveness for various cancer chemo-treatments are widespread. Due to this, efficient therapeutic agents targeting two or more of the putative targets in different cancer cells are proposed as cutting edge treatments. Heterocyclic compounds, both synthetic and natural products, have, however, contributed immensely to chemotherapeutics for treatments of various diseases, but little is known about such compounds and their multimodal anticancer properties. A compendium of heterocyclic synthetic and natural product multitarget anticancer compounds, their IC50, and biological targets of inhibition are therefore presented in this review.

The Neuropeptide Y1 Receptor Ligand-Modified Cell Membrane Promotes Targeted Photodynamic Therapy of Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks for Breast Cancer.

Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs), widely regarded as promising materials for application in catalysis and separation, hold an increasingly significant position in drug delivery systems for their high drug loading capacity. Focused specifically on the rational design of targeting and bioresponsive nanovehicles, a neuropeptide Y1 receptor ligand (Y1L)-modified cell membrane camouflaged bioresponsive ZIF system (Y1L-RBC@ZIF-90@Ce6) was constructed for targeted photodynamic therapy of breast cancer. The biomimetic ZIF-based nanocarrier enhanced tumor accumulation by both neuropeptide Y1 receptor-targeted guidance and long-term stability. Y1L served as a good ligand-mediated selective targeting molecule for breast cancer, and red blood cell membrane-camouflaged nanocomposites displayed favorable biocompatibility. With the dual response of the ZIF to pH and adenosine triphosphate, the stimulus responsive photosensitizer Chlorin e6 delivery system effectively suppressed tumors in vivo. This work offers a platform for developing much safer and more efficient photodynamic therapy for the treatment of Y1R-overexpressed breast cancer.

Peripheral-specific Y1 receptor antagonism increases thermogenesis and protects against diet-induced obesity.

Obesity is caused by an imbalance between food intake and energy expenditure (EE). Here we identify a conserved pathway that links signalling through peripheral Y1 receptors (Y1R) to the control of EE. Selective antagonism of peripheral Y1R, via the non-brain penetrable antagonist BIBO3304, leads to a significant reduction in body weight gain due to enhanced EE thereby reducing fat mass. Specifically thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) due to elevated UCP1 is enhanced accompanied by extensive browning of white adipose tissue both in mice and humans. Importantly, selective ablation of Y1R from adipocytes protects against diet-induced obesity. Furthermore, peripheral specific Y1R antagonism also improves glucose homeostasis mainly driven by dynamic changes in Akt activity in BAT. Together, these data suggest that selective peripheral only Y1R antagonism via BIBO3304, or a functional analogue, could be developed as a safer and more effective treatment option to mitigate diet-induced obesity.

Regulation of Pancreatic ß-Cell Function by the NPY System.

The neuropeptide Y (NPY) system has been recognized as one of the most critical molecules in the regulation of energy homeostasis and glucose metabolism. Abnormal levels of NPY have been shown to contribute to the development of metabolic disorders including obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes. NPY centrally promotes feeding and reduces energy expenditure, while the other family members, peptide YY (PYY) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP), mediate satiety. New evidence has uncovered additional functions for these peptides that go beyond energy expenditure and appetite regulation, indicating a more extensive function in controlling other physiological functions. In this review, we will discuss the role of the NPY system in the regulation of pancreatic ß-cell function and its therapeutic implications for diabetes.

Photoinduced receptor confinement drives ligand-independent GPCR signaling.

Cell-cell communication relies on the assembly of receptor-ligand complexes at the plasma membrane. The spatiotemporal receptor organization has a pivotal role in evoking cellular responses. We studied the clustering of heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and established a photoinstructive matrix with ultrasmall lock-and-key interaction pairs to control lateral membrane organization of hormone neuropeptide Y2 receptors in living cells by light. Within seconds, receptor clustering was modulated in size, location, and density. After in situ confinement, changes in cellular morphology, motility, and calcium signaling revealed ligand-independent receptor activation. This approach may enhance the exploration of mechanisms in cell signaling and mechanotransduction.

The trichothecene neosolaniol stimulates an emetic response through neuropeptide Y2 and serotonin 3 receptors in mink.

Type A trichothecene neosolaniol (NEO) is considered a potential risk to human and animal health by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). To date, available data do not allow making conclusions about the toxicological properties of this toxin. Trichothecenes have been previously demonstrated to induce emetic responses in mink, and this response has been associated with neurotransmitter peptide YY (PYY) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). The goal of this study was to compare emetic effects of NEO administered by intraperitoneal and oral routes and relate these effects to PYY and 5-HT. The effective doses resulting in emetic events in 50% of the animals following intraperitoneal and oral exposure to NEO were 0.4 and 0.09 mg/kg bw, respectively. This emetic response corresponded to elevated PYY and 5-HT levels. Blocking the neuropeptide Y2 receptor diminished emesis induction by PYY and NEO. The 5-HT3 receptor inhibitor granisetron completely restrained the induction of emesis by 5-HT and NEO. To summarize, our findings demonstrate that PYY and 5-HT play important roles in the NEO-induced emetic response.

Highly Selective Y4 Receptor Antagonist Binds in an Allosteric Binding Pocket.

Human neuropeptide Y receptors (Y1R, Y2R, Y4R, and Y5R) belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors and play an important role in the regulation of food intake and energy metabolism. We identified and characterized the first selective Y4R allosteric antagonist (S)-VU0637120, an important step toward validating Y receptors as therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases. To obtain insight into the antagonistic mechanism of (S)-VU0637120, we conducted a variety of in vitro, ex vivo, and in silico studies. These studies revealed that (S)-VU0637120 selectively inhibits native Y4R function and binds in an allosteric site located below the binding pocket of the endogenous ligand pancreatic polypeptide in the core of the Y4R transmembrane domains. Taken together, our studies provide a first-of-its-kind tool for probing Y4R function and improve the general understanding of allosteric modulation, ultimately contributing to the rational development of allosteric modulators for peptide-activated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).

Neuropeptide Y and glutamatergic mechanisms in the amygdala and ventral hippocampus differentially mediate impaired social behavior in diabetic mice.

Though patients with diabetes mellitus are reported to show deficits in social interaction, the mechanisms of these impairments are unclear. The present study investigated the role of AMPA and neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors in the ventral hippocampus (vHC) and basolateral amygdala (BLA) in the social behavior of diabetic mice. In the three-chamber test, streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice showed impairment in social novelty preference, but not in sociability. Injection of the AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX into vHC or BLA each restored social novelty preference in STZ-induced diabetic mice. NPY content in amygdala, but not in vHC, of STZ-induced diabetic mice was increased relative to non-diabetic mice. In STZ-induced diabetic mice, injection of the NPY Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE 0246 into BLA restored social novelty preference, whereas injection of BIIE 0246 into vHC was without effect. Finally, in non-diabetic mice social novelty preference was impaired by the NPY Y2 receptor agonist NPY 13-36 injected into BLA and restored by co-injection of NBQX. These results indicate that in diabetic mice glutamatergic function is enhanced in both vHC and BLA, which impairs social novelty preference through AMPA receptors. In addition, they indicate that NPYergic function in BLA, but not vHC, is enhanced in diabetic mice, which impairs social novelty preference through NPY Y2 receptors.

Metaplastic contribution of neuropeptide Y receptors to spatial memory acquisition.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is highly abundant in the brain and is released as a co-transmitter with plasticity-related neurotransmitters such as glutamate, GABA and noradrenaline. Functionally, its release is associated with appetite, anxiety, and stress regulation. NPY acting on Y2 receptors (Y2R), facilitates fear extinction, suggesting a role in associative memory. Here, we explored to what extent NPY action at Y2R contributes to hippocampus-dependent spatial memory and found that dorsal intrahippocampal receptor antagonism improved spatial reference memory acquired in a water maze in rats, without affecting anxiety levels, or spontaneous motor activity. Water maze training resulted in an increase of Y2R, but not Y1R expression in the hippocampus. By contrast, in the prefrontal cortex there was a decrease in Y2R, and an increase of Y1R expression. Our results indicate that neuropeptide Y2R are significantly involved in hippocampus-dependent spatial memory and that receptor expression is dynamically regulated by this learning experience. Effects are consistent with a metaplastic contribution of NPY receptors to cumulative spatial learning.

Tautomycetin Synthetic Analogues: Selective Inhibitors of Protein Phosphatase I.

Ser/Thr protein phosphatases (PPs) regulate a substantial range of cellular processes with protein phosphatases 1 (PP1) and 2 A (PP2A) accounting for over 90 % of the activity within cells. Nevertheless, tools to study PPs are limited as PPs inhibitors, particularly those selective for PP1 inhibition, are relatively scarce. Two examples of PP1-selective inhibitors, which share structural similarities, are tautomycin (TTM) and tautomycetin (TTN). This work describes the development of PP1/PP2A inhibitors that incorporate key structural features of TTM and TTN and are designed to conserve regions known to bind the active site of PP1/PP2A but vary regions that differentially contact the hydrophobic groove of PP1/PP2A. In all 28 TTN analogues were synthetically generated that inhibit PP1/PP2A activity at <250 mM; seven possessed inhibition activity at 100 nM. The IC50 values were determined for the seven most active analogues, which ranged from 34 to 1500 nM (PP1) and 70 to 6800 nM (PP2A). Four of the seven analogues possessed PP1 selectivity, and one demonstrated eightfold selectivity in the nanomolar range (PP1 IC50 =34 nM, PP2A IC50 =270 nM). A rationale is given for the observed differences in selectivity.

Increase in neuropeptide Y activity impairs social behaviour in association with glutamatergic dysregulation in diabetic mice.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Patients with diabetes mellitus are reported to show a raised prevalence of mental disorders, which may be reflected in impaired social interaction. However, the mechanisms underlying such impairment in diabetes are unknown. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The present study investigated whether social interaction is impaired in diabetic mice and whether central neuropeptide Y (NPY) and glutamatergic function are involved in such impairment. KEY RESULTS: In the three-chamber test, social novelty preference, but not sociability, was impaired in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. The mRNA level of NPY in the hypothalamus was increased in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Injection of the NPY Y2 receptor agonist NPY 13-36 into naïve mice impaired social novelty preference, but not sociability, and this effect was inhibited by the Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE 0246. BIIE 0246 also reversed the impairment of social novelty preference in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Similarly, injection of the AMPA receptor agonist AMPA into naïve mice impaired social novelty preference, but not sociability, and this effect was inhibited by the AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX. Impairment of social novelty preference induced by NPY 13-36 was inhibited by NBQX, whereas impairment of social novelty preference induced by AMPA was not inhibited by BIIE 0246. Finally, impairment of social novelty preference in STZ-induced diabetic mice was reversed by NBQX. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: These findings suggest that NPY neurons are activated in diabetic mice and that this may impair social novelty preference by promoting glutamatergic function through Y2 receptors.

The Dynamics of the Neuropeptide Y Receptor Type 1 Investigated by Solid-State NMR and Molecular Dynamics Simulation.

We report data on the structural dynamics of the neuropeptide Y (NPY) G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type 1 (Y1R), a typical representative of class A peptide ligand GPCRs, using a combination of solid-state NMR and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. First, the equilibrium dynamics of Y1R were studied using 15N-NMR and quantitative determination of 1H-13C order parameters through the measurement of dipolar couplings in separated-local-field NMR experiments. Order parameters reporting the amplitudes of the molecular motions of the C-H bond vectors of Y1R in DMPC membranes are 0.57 for the Cα sites and lower in the side chains (0.37 for the CH2 and 0.18 for the CH3 groups). Different NMR excitation schemes identify relatively rigid and also dynamic segments of the molecule. In monounsaturated membranes composed of longer lipid chains, Y1R is more rigid, attributed to a higher hydrophobic thickness of the lipid membrane. The presence of an antagonist or NPY has little influence on the amplitude of motions, whereas the addition of agonist and arrestin led to a pronounced rigidization. To investigate Y1R dynamics with site resolution, we conducted extensive all-atom MD simulations of the apo and antagonist-bound state. In each state, three replicas with a length of 20 µs (with one exception, where the trajectory length was 10 µs) were conducted. In these simulations, order parameters of each residue were determined and showed high values in the transmembrane helices, whereas the loops and termini exhibit much lower order. The extracellular helix segments undergo larger amplitude motions than their intracellular counterparts, whereas the opposite is observed for the loops, Helix 8, and termini. Only minor differences in order were observed between the apo and antagonist-bound state, whereas the time scale of the motions is shorter for the apo state. Although these relatively fast motions occurring with correlation times of ns up to a few µs have no direct relevance for receptor activation, it is believed that they represent the prerequisite for larger conformational transitions in proteins.

Inhibition of Y1 Receptor Promotes Osteogenesis in Bone Marrow Stromal Cells via cAMP/PKA/CREB Pathway.

Inhibition of neuropeptide Y1 receptor stimulates osteogenesis in vitro and in vivo. However, the underlying mechanisms involved in these effects remain poorly understood. Here we identify the effects of Y1 receptor deficiency on osteogenic differentiation in human bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) by using genetic and pharmacological regulation, and to explore the pathways mediating these effects. In BMSCs, inhibition of Y1 receptor stimulates osteogenesis and upregulates the expression levels of the master transcriptional factor RUNX2. Mechanistically, Y1 receptor deficiency increases the levels of intracellular cAMP, which via protein kinase A (PKA) mediated pathways results in activation of phospho-CREB (p-CREB). We find RUNX2 activation induced by Y1 receptor deficiency is reversed by H-89, a PKA inhibitor. These results indicate Y1 receptor deficiency activates PKA-mediated phosphorylation of CREB, leading to activation of RUNX2 and enhances osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs. In conclusion, these data indicate that Y1 receptor deficiency promotes osteogenic differentiation by RUNX2 stimulation through cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway.

NPY-Y1 receptors in dorsal periaqueductal gray modulate anxiety, alcohol intake, and relapse in Wistar rats.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is likely the main endogenous anxiolytic neuromodulator involved in alcohol intake. NPY-Y1, a receptor for NPY, is highly expressed in the periaqueductal gray (PAG), a mesencephalic structure involved in integrating nervous activity to the performance of active and passive defensive behaviors related to fear and anxiety. Interestingly, anxiety and fear are some of the prevailing emotional negative states during alcohol abstinence. Moreover, an inverse relationship between NPY activity and alcohol consumption has been frequently reported, mainly in the extended amygdala. Nevertheless, both the roles of NPY and that of the receptor involved in these actions have been scarcely studied. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze the pharmacological effect of NPY and NPY-Y1 receptor blockade into the dorsal periaqueductal gray (D-PAG) in an alcohol consumption and relapse paradigm in adult male Wistar rats. Ninety-six rats at postnatal day 42 (PND-42) were classified as having low and high anxiety (LA and HA), respectively, through the elevated plus maze test (EPM). Then, those animals were randomly divided into alcohol naïve (AN) and forced alcohol consumption (FAC) groups. A cannula was implanted in D-PAG to microinject vehicle (VEH), NPY, or BIBP-3226 (a selective NPY-Y1 receptor antagonist). A defensive burying behavior test (DBB) was performed to assess the anxiety-like state during withdrawal, followed by a 24-hour free choice voluntary alcohol intake test. Under our experimental conditions, NPY microinjection decreased alcohol consumption in HA rats, whereas NPY-Y1 receptor blockade in D-PAG produced a notably anxiogenic effect and higher alcohol intake and relapse. In conclusion, NPY in the D-PAG, most likely acting on NPY-Y1 receptors, induced a significant anxiolytic effect and prominently inhibited alcohol consumption and relapse in Wistar rats.

NPY alterations induced by chronic morphine exposure affect the maintenance and reinstatement of morphine conditioned place preference.

Opioid addiction is a brain disease that severely harms society and personal health. Although the tremendous numbers of patients worldwide and emerged negative events, effective treatments for opioid addiction are still lacking. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is one of the main orexigenic peptides that play vital roles in food intake and energy metabolism. However, increasing evidence indicates that NPY may have great potential in mediating reward effects and drug dependence. In the present study, we assessed the expression changes of NPY in the nucleus accumbens at different timepoints following morphine conditioned place preference (CPP) and investigated the functional importance of potential NPY changes. Our results showed that NPY expression significantly decreased in the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh) immediately after chronic morphine exposure. Subsequently, it increased rapidly at first and then gradually returned to normal levels. Further data indicated that these NPY changes were involved in morphine reward memory, demonstrated by a reduction in the extinction period after blocking of the Y5 receptor by L-152,804 in the AcbSh and a prolonged duration of the extinction period following the application of NPY. More importantly, the additional results revealed that L-152,804 also remarkably suppressed the reinstatement of morphine CPP. Together, our results indicate that a complicated plasticity of the NPY pathway in AcbSh occurs following morphine CPP, and this plasticity plays an important role in modulating morphine reward memory. These findings may enhance our understanding of the role of the NPY system in opioid addiction and indicate a promising target for opioid addiction treatment.

Strategic Aspects of NPY-Based Monoclonal Antibodies for Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast Cancer.

Immunotherapy emerges as a treatment strategy for breast cancer marker, diagnosis and treatment. In this review, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs)-based passive and peptide vaccines as active immunotherapy approaches like activation of B-cells and T-cells are studied. Passive immunotherapy is mAbs-based therapy effective against tumor cells, which acts by targeting HER2, IGF 1R, VEGF, BCSC and immune checkpoints. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and GPCR are the areas of interest to target BC metastases for on-targeting therapeutic action. Neuropeptide S (NPS) or NPS receptor 1, acts as a biomarker for Neuroendocrine tumors (NET), mostly characterized by synaptophysin and chromogranin-A expression or Ki-67 proliferation index. The protein fusion technologies arise as a promising avenue in plant expression systems for increased recombinant Ab accumulation and cost-efficient purification. Recently, mAbs-based immunotherapy effectiveness is appreciated as a novel therapeutic combination of chemotherapy and immunotherapy to reduce the side effects and improve therapeutic responsiveness. Synthetic drug resistance will be overcome by mAbs-based therapy through several clinical trials and detection methods need to be optimized for accuracy and precision. Pharmacokinetic attributes need to be accessed for preferred receptor-agonist activity without ligand accumulation.