Structural inequality and temporal brain dynamics across diverse samples.

BACKGROUND: Structural income inequality - the uneven income distribution across regions or countries - could affect brain structure and function, beyond individual differences. However, the impact of structural income inequality on the brain dynamics and the roles of demographics and cognition in these associations remains unexplored. METHODS: Here, we assessed the impact of structural income inequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient on multiple EEG metrics, while considering the subject-level effects of demographic (age, sex, education) and cognitive factors. Resting-state EEG signals were collected from a diverse sample (countries = 10; healthy individuals = 1394 from Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Cuba, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Turkey and United Kingdom). Complexity (fractal dimension, permutation entropy, Wiener entropy, spectral structure variability), power spectral and aperiodic components (1/f slope, knee, offset), as well as graph-theoretic measures were analysed. FINDINGS: Despite variability in samples, data collection methods, and EEG acquisition parameters, structural inequality systematically predicted electrophysiological brain dynamics, proving to be a more crucial determinant of brain dynamics than individual-level factors. Complexity and aperiodic activity metrics captured better the effects of structural inequality on brain function. Following inequality, age and cognition emerged as the most influential predictors. The overall results provided convergent multimodal metrics of biologic embedding of structural income inequality characterised by less complex signals, increased random asynchronous neural activity, and reduced alpha and beta power, particularly over temporoposterior regions. CONCLUSION: These findings might challenge conventional neuroscience approaches that tend to overemphasise the influence of individual-level factors, while neglecting structural factors. Results pave the way for neuroscience-informed public policies aimed at tackling structural inequalities in diverse populations.

Contextual Boundaries: Skin Tone Stratification and Skill Transferability Among Mexicans in the Age of Mass Migration.

An extensive literature has focused on the association between human, social, and economic capital and better immigrant economic attainment, and how these characteristics contribute to stratification among members of the same group. However, few studies have explored how racialization processes contribute to these within-group differences. We examine the role of intragroup differences in skin tone in stratifying outcomes among Mexican immigrants in the early twentieth century. We create a new dataset of 1910-1940 Mexican border-crossing records that we then link to the U.S. 1940 census. We use characteristics at entry to predict income in 1940 and find that-in line with dominant assimilation theories-standard measures of capital are associated with within-group attainment differences. However, we also find skin tone to be a source of within-group stratification: being perceived as having darker skin is associated with lower subsequent economic attainment than being perceived as having lighter skin. Furthermore, whereas human and social capital transcended context to allow migrants to transfer those skills anywhere, the effect of skin tone was significant only in Texas and not in other major receiving places like California. We argue that although standard measures of assimilation typically predict later outcomes, the stratifying effect of skin tone has long been a feature of Mexican immigration.

Economic interventions for the prevention of mental health problems: The role of cash transfers.

There is a strong, bidirectional association between social disadvantage and poor mental health. The risk of experiencing mental health problems is particularly enhanced by factors associated with living in poverty. Thus, economic interventions may be effective in reducing the burden of mental health issues in these populations. This article explores the evidence based on one specific type of economic intervention on mental health, that is, supplementing household income through cash transfers. This narrative evidence is supplemented by an in-depth analysis of one of the world's largest national cash transfer programs, the Bolsa Família program, in Brazil. We report that evidence from multiple contexts clearly demonstrates that cash transfers are highly effective in reducing the burden of mental health issues and reducing mental health disparities. We then consider the specific mechanisms through which cash transfers influence mental health. Finally, we discuss the need for these interventions and, referring to the Brazilian case study, explore potential strategies for their implementation at scale and the implications for research and policy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Income and education level trajectories and changes in the daily consumption of vegetables after thirteen years of follow-up: the Pró-Saúde Study.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine whether education level and income trajectories influence vegetable consumption changes over 13 years among civil servants at different campuses of a university in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. METHODS: Vegetable intake frequency (daily and non-daily consumption), income (per capita), and education level (maintenance of low schooling/ upward mobility/maintenance of high schooling) were assessed at baseline (1999) and in the fourth wave (2011-12) of the Pró-Saúde (Pro-Health) cohort study. A total of 2,381 participants were analyzed. The association between educational and income trajectories and variation in vegetable consumption was assessed via crude and age-adjusted generalized linear models, stratified by sex. RESULTS: Men in upward educational mobility showed a 0.5% increase in vegetable consumption (p=0.01), while women in this group demonstrated a 2.5% increase (p=0.05). Adjusted models showed that women who reduced their income had a lower likelihood of consuming vegetables (odds ratio [OR] 0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.89-0.97). CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the influence of social inequalities on vegetable consumption in adults.

Family out-of-pocket expenditure for type 2 diabetes mellitus care and percentage of family income.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes has economic implications involving family income and out-of-pocket spending. OBJECTIVE: Determine family out-of-pocket expenditure for type 2 diabetes mellitus care and percentage of family income. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Study of family out-of-pocket spending in families with patients with type 2 diabetes treated at primary care level. Out-of-pocket expenses included expenses for transportation, food-drinks, and external medications. Family income corresponded to the total economic income contributed by family members. The percentage of out-of-pocket spending in relation to family income was identified with the relationship between these two variables. Statistical analysis included averages and percentages. RESULTS: The annual family out-of-pocket expenditure on transportation was $2,621.24, the family out-of-pocket expenditure on food and beverages was $1,075.67, and the family out-of-pocket expenditure on external medications was $722.08. The total annual family out-of-pocket expense was $4,418.89 and corresponds to 4.73% of family income. CONCLUSION: The family out-of-pocket expense in the family with a patient with diabetes mellitus 2 was $4,418.89 and represents 4.73% of the family income.

ANTECEDENTES: La diabetes tipo 2 tiene implicaciones económicas en el ingreso familiar y el gasto de bolsillo. OBJETIVO: Determinar el gasto de bolsillo familiar en la atención de la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y el porcentaje que representa en el ingreso familiar. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio de gasto de bolsillo de las familias con pacientes con diabetes tipo 2 atendidos en el primer nivel de atención. El gasto de bolsillo familiar incluyó gasto en traslado, alimentos-bebidas y medicamentos externos. El ingreso familiar correspondió al total de ingresos económicos aportados por los miembros de la familia. El porcentaje del gasto de bolsillo con relación al ingreso familiar se identificó con la relación entre estas dos variables. El análisis estadístico incluyó promedios y porcentajes. RESULTADOS: El gasto de bolsillo familiar anual en transporte fue de $2621.24, en alimentos y bebidas fue de $1075.67 y en medicamentos externos fue de $722.08. El gasto familiar de bolsillo total anual fue de $4418.89 y correspondió a 4.73 % del ingreso familiar. CONCLUSIÓN: El gasto de bolsillo en las familias con un paciente con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 fue de $4418.89 y representó 4.73 % del ingreso familiar.

Indicators of social inequalities associated with cancer mortality in Brazilian adults: scoping review. / Indicadores de desigualdades sociais associados à mortalidade por neoplasias nos adultos brasileiros: revisão de escopo.

The objective of this study was to identify indicators of social inequalities associated with mortality from neoplasms in the Brazilian adult population. A scoping review method was used, establishing the guiding question: What is the effect of social inequalities on mortality from neoplasms in the Brazilian adult population? A total of 567 papers were identified, 22 of which were considered eligible. A variety of indicators were identified, such as the Human Development Index and the Gini Index, which primarily assessed differences in income, schooling, human development and vulnerability. A single pattern of association between the indicators and the different neoplasms was not established, nor was a single indicator capable of explaining the effect of social inequality at all levels of territorial area and by deaths from all types of neoplasms identified. It is known that mortality is influenced by social inequalities and that the study of indicators provides an opportunity to define which best explains deaths. This review highlights important gaps regarding the use of non-modifiable social indicators, analysis of small geographical areas, and limited use of multidimensional indicators.

O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar indicadores de desigualdades sociais associados à mortalidade por neoplasias na população adulta brasileira. Utilizou-se como método a revisão de escopo, estabelecendo-se a pergunta norteadora: qual o efeito das desigualdades sociais na mortalidade por neoplasias na população adulta brasileira? Foram identificados 567 trabalhos, sendo 22 considerados elegíveis. Identificou-se uma diversidade de indicadores, como o Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano e o Índice de Gini, entre outros, que avaliaram primordialmente diferenças de renda, escolarização, desenvolvimento humano e vulnerabilidade. Não foi estabelecido um único padrão de associação entre os indicadores e as diferentes neoplasias, assim como não se identificou um indicador único capaz de explicar o efeito da desigualdade social em todos os níveis de área e por óbitos por todos os tipos de neoplasias, mas identificou-se que a mortalidade é influenciada pelas desigualdades sociais e que o estudo dos indicadores proporciona definir qual melhor explica os óbitos. Essa revisão destaca importantes lacunas referentes ao uso de indicadores sociais não modificáveis, à análise de pequenas áreas e ao uso limitado de indicadores multidimensionais.

Desigualdad en las prácticas de lactancia y alimentación complementaria en la Argentina, según nivel de ingresos del hogar en 2018-19 / Inequality in breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices in Argentina by household income level in 2018­2019

Introducción. La calidad de la alimentación es un derecho vinculado con la supervivencia, el crecimiento saludable, la prevención de enfermedades crónicas y malnutrición en todas sus formas. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar las prácticas de lactancia y de alimentación de menores de 2 años de áreas urbanas de la Argentina en 2018-19, según el nivel de ingreso de los hogares. Población y métodos. Estudio secundario con datos de la 2da. Encuesta Nacional de Nutrición y Salud 2018-19. Se analizaron indicadores de lactancia y alimentación complementaria, según metodología de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) y Unicef. Se estratificó según nivel de ingresos del hogar. Resultados. El análisis incluyó 5763 menores de 24 meses. Aunque el 97 % fue alguna vez amamantado, solo el 47 % de los menores de 6 meses tuvo lactancia exclusiva el día previo y el 48 % mantenía la lactancia luego del año, con mayor prevalencia en los niños/as de menores ingresos. En el día previo, el 23 % de los niños/as de 6 a 23 meses no consumió ninguna verdura o fruta; el 60 % consumió alimentos no saludables y el 50 %, bebidas dulces. Las bebidas dulces y la ausencia de frutas y verduras fueron mayores en aquellos de hogares de menores ingresos. Conclusión. La calidad de la alimentación de los niños/as dista de las recomendaciones y está condicionada por los ingresos. En los sectores empobrecidos, es menor el inicio temprano de la lactancia, la diversidad alimentaria mínima y el consumo de frutas y verduras, y es mayor el consumo de bebidas dulces.

Introduction. Diet quality is a right related to survival, healthy growth, prevention of chronic diseases, and malnutrition in all its forms. The objective of this study was to analyze breastfeeding and feeding practices in children younger than 2 years from urban areas of Argentina in 2018­2019 according to their household income level. Population and methods. Secondary analysis of data of the Second National Survey on Nutrition and Health (ENNyS2) of 2018­2019. Breastfeeding and complementary feeding indicators proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) were analized. Data were stratified by household income level. Results. The analysis included 5763 children younger than 24 months old. Although 97% was ever breastfed, only 47% of infants younger than 6 months were exclusively breastfed the previous day and 48% continued with breastfeeding after 1 year old, with a higher prevalence in low-income children. The previous day, 23% of children aged 6 to 23 months did not eat any fruit or vegetable, 60% consumed unhealthy foods, and 50% consumed sweet beverages. The consumption of sweet beverages and the absence of fruit and vegetables were higher in low-income households. Conclusion. The quality of children's diet is far from the recommendations and is conditioned by income. Early initiation of breastfeeding, minimum dietary diversity, fruit and vegetable consumption are lower and sweet beverage consumption is greater in impoverished sectors.

Mortality of Young Women due to Breast Cancer in Low, Middle and High-Income Countries: Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the difference in breast cancer mortality rates among young women according to countries' economic classification. METHODS: A systematic literature review included retrospective studies on breast cancer mortality rates in women aged 20 to 49 years. Databases used were PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Virtual Health Library, with articles selected in English, Portuguese, and Spanish. The study selection and analysis were conducted by two pairs of researchers. Data from 54 countries were extracted, including 39 high-income, 12 upper-middle-income, and 3 lower-middle-income countries. A meta-analysis was performed with the quantitative data from two studies. RESULTS: Six articles met the inclusion criteria. Four were analyzed descriptively due to data diversity, and two were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled mortality rate for high-income countries was 10.2 per 100,000 women (95% CI: 9.8-10.6), while for upper-middle-income countries, it was 15.5 per 100,000 women (95% CI: 14.9-16.1). Lower-middle-income countries had a pooled mortality rate of 20.3 per 100,000 women (95% CI: 19.5-21.1). The decrease in mortality rates in high-income countries was statistically significant (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Mortality rates for breast cancer among young women have decreased significantly in high-income countries but have increased in lower-income countries. This disparity underscores the impact of insufficient investment in preventive measures, health promotion, early diagnosis, and treatment on young women's mortality in lower-income countries.

Factors associated with financial risk due to health spending in Argentina.

This article aims to assess the association between household demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) in Argentina during 2017-2018. CHE was estimated as the proportion of household consumption capacity (using both income and total consumption in separate estimations) allocated for Out-of-Pocket (OOP) health expenditure. For assessing the determinants, we estimated a generalized ordered logit model using different intensities of CHE (10%, 15%, 20% and 25%) as the ordinal dependent variable, and socioeconomic, demographic and geographical variables as explanatory factors. We found that having members older than 65 years and with long-term difficulties increased the likelihood of incurring CHE. Additionally, having an economically inactive household head was identified as a factor that increases this probability. However, the research did not yield consistent results regarding the relationship between public and private health insurance and consumption capacity. Our results, along with the robustness checks, suggest that the magnitude of the coefficients for the household head characteristics could be exaggerated in studies that overlook the attributes of other household members. In addition, these results emphasize the significance of accounting for long-term difficulties and indicate that omitting this factor could overestimate the impact of members aged over 65.

Adherence to the planetary health diet and cognitive decline: findings from the ELSA-Brasil study.

The EAT-Lancet Commission proposed a planetary health diet to improve human health within planetary boundaries; however, little is known about the association between adherence to this diet and cognitive decline. We used data from three waves of the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health to evaluate the association between the planetary health diet and cognitive decline using linear mixed-effects models. Here we show that in 11,737 participants (mean (s.d.) age 51.6 (9.0) years, 54% women and 53% white), higher adherence to the planetary health diet was associated with slower memory decline (P = 0.046) and that income was a modifier in this association (P < 0.001). Adherence to the planetary health diet was associated with slower decline of memory (P = 0.040) and global cognition (P = 0.009) in high-income participants. No association was found among low-income participants. The results of our study highlight that the promotion of healthy dietary patterns should take into consideration income barriers as well as differences in dietary habits to achieve high adherence.

Iron deficiency anemia as a risk factor for pulp disease in children from the central Peruvian jungle: a case‒control study.

AIM: To investigate iron-deficiency anemia as a risk factor for dental pulp disease in children from the central Peruvian jungle. METHODOLOGY: A case-control study was carried out with 270 children, of which 90 referred to cases and 180, to controls. Patients with pulp disease were diagnosed according to the criteria of the Association of Endodontists and the American Board of Endodontics. A specific questionnaire was used to assess ferrous sulfate consumption, maternal education level, maternal age, occupation, and household income. Data were analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficient and a binary logistic regression. RESULTS: Iron deficiency anemia offers a risk factor for pulp disease in children (OR 7.44, IC 95% 4.0-13.8). According to multivariate analysis using binary logistic regression, ferrous sulfate consumption (OR 13.8, IC 95% 5.6.33.9), maternal education level (OR 2.4, IC 95% 1.1-5.3), maternal age (OR 7.5, IC 95% 2.9-19.4), household income (OR 4.0, IC 95% 1.6-9.6), and caries (OR 10.7, IC 95% 4.5-25.7) configured independent factors that were statistically associated with pulp disease. CONCLUSION: Iron deficiency anemia, ferrous sulfate consumption, maternal education level, maternal age, household income, and dental caries were positively associated with pulp disease in children.

Squeezed from the top: "Social Outburst" (2019) and elite overproduction. A study of the dynamics of Chilean political instability from the approach of Structural Demographic Theory.

On October 18, 2019, Chile experienced the most important social upheaval since the country regained democracy in the late 1980s. The "Social Outbreak" surprised economic and political elites and seemed paradoxical to the international community who had often praised Chile as a model of successful development. In this paper, we used structural-demographic theory to analyze the interaction between the overproduction of elites and the stagnation in the relative income of the population as the underlying structural cause of Chilean political instability. This theory was able to predict the three most significant instances of political tension in the recent history of Chile: the crisis of the late 1960s that culminated in the coup d'état of 1973, popular mobilizations during the 1980s, and the recent student mobilizations and social upheaval. Our results suggest that, at least during the period 1938-2019, Chilean sociopolitical dynamics is determined by the same structural drivers.

Economic and financial viability of a pig farm in central semi-tropical Mexico: 2022-2026 prospective.

To estimate the economic and financial viability of a pig farm in central sub-tropical Mexico within a 5-year planning horizon, a Monte Carlo simulation model was utilized. Net returns were projected using simulated values for the distribution of input and product processes, establishing 2021 as base scenario. A stochastic modelling approach was employed to determine the economic and financial outlook. The findings reveal a panorama of economic and financial viability. Net income increased by 555%, return on assets rose from 3.36% in 2022 to 11.34% in 2026, and the probability of decapitalization dropped from 58% to 13%, respectively in the aforesaid periods. Similarly, the probability of obtaining negative net income decreased from 40% in 2022 to 18% in 2026. The technological, productive, and economic management of the production unit allowed for a favorable scenario within the planning horizon. There is a growing interest in predicting the economic sectors worth investing in and supporting, considering their economic and development performance. This research offers both methodological and scientific evidence to demonstrate the feasibility of establishing a planning schedule and validating the suitability of the pork sector for public investment and support.

The Paradox of Alcohol and Food Affordability: Minimal Impact of Leading Beer and Cachaça Brands on Brazilian Household Income Amid Hazardous Drinking Patterns.

Alcohol consumption, associated with various cancers, mental disorders, and aggressive behavior, leads to three million deaths globally each year. In Brazil, the alcohol per capita consumption among drinkers aged 15 and over is 41.7 g of pure alcohol/day (~1 L beer/day), which falls into the risky consumption category and exceeds the global average by almost 30%. An effective way to mitigate alcohol-related harm is to increase its retail price. This study assesses the costs of consuming leading brands of beer and sugarcane spirit cachaça (Brazil's most popular alcoholic beverages) against the expenditure on staple foods. Data on food and alcoholic beverage prices were collected in João Pessoa, Brazil, for 2020 and 2021. The cost per gram of pure alcohol and food were considered to establish consumption patterns of 16.8 g/day (moderate), 41.7 g/day, and 83.4 g/day (heavy), distributed in three scenarios involving the beverages alone or combined (64% beer and 36% cachaça), and a balanced 2000 kcal/day staple diet. The study finds that all heavy consumption scenarios cost less or significantly less (cachaça alone) than a 2000 kcal/day staple diet, highlighting an urgent need for fiscal policies, such as a minimum unit pricing for alcohol, to address public health concerns.

Associations of occupational physical activity and active transport with depressive symptoms in a middle-income country.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the associations of occupational physical activity and active transport with depressive symptoms, stratified by income range, among Brazilian working adults. STUDY DESIGN: This cross-sectional study drew on data from the 2019 Brazilian National Health Survey. METHODS: We used the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to assess depressive symptoms in working adults aged 18-65 years, with physical activities (occupational physical activity and active transport) self-reported through a specially developed questionnaire. Crude and adjusted logistic regression models were fitted. RESULTS: Individuals at the highest level of occupational physical activity (odds ratio [OR] 1.35; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.19-1.53) and at the moderate level of active transport to work (OR 1.66; 95% CI 1.24-2.22) returned increased odds of depressive symptoms as compared with those who were inactive in these domains. Stratified by income group, light active transport to work (OR 0.57; 95% CI 0.34-0.95) in the lower income group (Range 1) was associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms. On the other hand, individuals at the highest level of active transport to work returned higher odds of depressive symptoms in the low- and intermediate-income groups, Ranges 3 and 4 (OR 1.92; 95% CI 1.22-3.00 and OR 2.91; 95% CI 1.71-4.95, respectively). CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that occupational physical activity and active transport may be a risk factor for depressive symptoms. They also point to differences in this relationship by income range. Further studies are needed to pursue the analysis of how specific domains of physical activity contribute to depressive symptoms.

Social inequalities in indicators of use of healthcare services by adolescents in Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

This study aimed to analyze the prevalence of indicators of use of healthcare services according to sex, income and race/skin color, in adolescents (aged 10-19 years old) based on data from the Health Survey of the Municipality of Campinas (ISACamp), carried out in 2014/2015 in Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. The chi-square test was used to evaluate the differences between the outcome variables (indicators of use of healthcare service) and sex, income and race/skin color. Adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) were estimated using Poisson multiple regression models. The demand for medical care was high in the last year of the interview (79.2%), mostly attended by the Brazilian Unified National Health System (65.2%), with routine consultations being more prevalent for females (PR = 1.17; 95%CI: 1.01-1.34) and injury for the male population (PR = 0.47; 95%CI: 0.26-0.84). Economic and racial differences were found in the evaluation of the last medical consultation, with a higher prevalence of worse care among those with lower income (PR = 1.46; 95%CI: 1.14-1.87) and black people (PR = 1.27; 95%CI: 1.01-1.61). Inequalities remained for delay or failure to carry out exams (PR = 1.64; 95%CI: 1.02-2.64) and worse quality of dental care (PR = 2.10; 95%CI: 1.38-3.21) in those with lower income. Also, black people had fewer appointments with dentists (PR = 0.90; 95%CI: 0.82-0.99).

Effects on household income and earnings from chronic kidney disease of non-traditional origins: PREP project findings from Chichigalpa, Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose with this study is to examine the socioeconomic outcomes associated with chronic kidney disease not related to well-known risk factors (CKDnt) in four communities in Chichigalpa, Nicaragua that are home to a substantial number of sugarcane workers. METHODS: We employed a cluster-based systematic sampling design to identify differences in outcomes between those households affected directly by CKDnt and those that are not. RESULTS: Overall, we find that approximately one-third of households surveyed had a household member diagnosed with CKDnt. 86% of CKDnt households reported that the head of the household had been without work for the last 6 months or more, compared with 53% of non-CKDnt households. Non-CKDnt households took in more than double the earnings income on average than CKDnt households ($C52 835 and $C3120, respectively). Nonetheless, on average, CKDnt households' total income exceeded that of non-CKDnt households due to Nicaragua's national Instituto Nicaraguense de Seguridad Social Social Security payments to CKDnt households, suggestive of a substantial economic burden on the state resulting from the disease. Households headed by widows or widowers who are widowed as a result of CKDnt demonstrate distinct deficits in total income when compared with either non-widowed households or to households widowed by causes other than CKDnt. CONCLUSIONS: Despite strong similarities in terms of demographic characteristics and despite residing in the same communities with similar access to the available resources, households experiencing CKDnt exhibit distinct and statistically significant differences in important socioeconomic outcomes when compared to non-CKDnt households.

Height & income: Labor returns of health in Mexico from 2000 to 2018.

Investment in health has been proposed as a mechanism to promote upward social mobility. Previous analyses have reported inconsistent estimates of the returns to investment in health in Mexico based on different models for different years. We aim to estimate returns for Mexico using data from four time points Adult height and labor income are drawn from the periodical national health and nutrition surveys-a group of relatively standardized surveys-that are representative of individuals living in the country in 2000, 2006, 2012 & 2018. These surveys collect anthropometric measurements and information on individuals' labor income. We estimated Mincerian models separately for men and women using OLS, Heckman, instrumental variables, and Heckman with instrumental variables models. Our results indicate significant and positive returns to health for the four surveys, similar in magnitude across years for women and with variations for men. By 2018, returns to health were about 7.4% per additional centimeter in height for females and 9.3% for males. Investments in health and nutrition during childhood and adolescence that increase health capital-measured as adult height-may promote social mobility in Mexico and similar countries to the extent that these investments differentially increase health capital among the poor.

Share of food group expenditure in Mexican households according to the gender of the head of household and size of the locality.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate differences in the percentage of expenditure on food groups in Mexican households according to the gender of the household head and the size of the locality. DESIGN: Analysis of secondary data from the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) 2018. We estimated the percentage of expenditure on fifteen food groups according to the gender of the head of household and locality size and evaluated the differences using a two-part model approach. SETTING: Mexico, 2018. PARTICIPANTS: A nationally representative sample of 74 647 Mexican households. RESULTS: Female-headed households allocated a lower share of expenditure to the purchase of sweetened beverages and alcoholic beverages and higher percentages to milk and dairy, fruits and water. In comparison with metropolitan households, households in rural and urban localities spent more on cereals and tubers, sugar and honey, oil and fat and less on food away from home. CONCLUSIONS: Households allocate different percentages of expenditure to diverse food groups according to the gender of the head of the household and the size of the locality where they are located. Future research should focus on understanding the economic and social disparities related to differences in food expenditure, including the gender perspective.

Inequality of the crowding-out effect of tobacco expenditure in Colombia.

In recent decades, policy initiatives involving increases in the tobacco tax have increased pressure on budget allocations in poor households. In this study, we examine this issue in the context of the expansion of the social welfare state that has taken place over the last two decades in several emerging economies. This study explores the case of Colombia between 1997 and 2011. In this period, the budget share of the poorest expenditure quintile devoted to tobacco products of smokers' households doubled. We analyse the differences between the poorest and richest quintiles concerning the changes in budget shares, fixing a reference population over time to avoid demographic composition confounders. We find no evidence of crowding-out of education or healthcare expenditures. This is likely to be the result of free universal access to health insurance and basic education for the poor. For higher-income households, tobacco crowds out expenditures on entertainment, leisure activities, and luxury expenditures. This finding should reassure policymakers who are keen to impose tobacco taxes as an element of their public health policy.