The incidence of refeeding syndrome and the nutrition management of severely malnourished inpatients with eating disorders: An observational study.

OBJECTIVE: Nutritional rehabilitation and weight restoration are often critical for the treatment of eating disorders (ED), yet are restricted by the potential risk of refeeding syndrome (RFS). The primary objective was to determine the incidence of RFS. Secondary objectives were to explore predictive factors of RFS and describe its impact on treatment goals for patients with ED. METHOD: This retrospective observational study reviewed the nutrition management for patients admitted to a quaternary hospital for ED treatment from 2018 to 2020. Data were collected during the first 4 weeks of admission and included anthropometry, energy prescription, incidence and severity of RFS, and electrolyte and micronutrient prescription. Outcomes included incidence of RFS, energy prescription and advancement, and weight change. RESULTS: Of 423 ED admissions, 217 patients (median [interquartile range, IQR] age 25 [21-30.5] years; 210 [97%] female) met inclusion criteria. Median (IQR) body mass index (BMI) on admission was 15.5 (14.1-17.3) kg/m2 . The mean (standard deviation) length of admission was 35 (7.3) days. Median (IQR) initial energy prescription was 1500 (930-1500) kcal/day. Seventy-three (33%) patients developed RFS; 34 (16%) mild, 27 (12%) moderate, and 12 (5%) severe. There was no association between RFS severity and admission BMI, energy prescription, or prescription of prophylactic electrolytes or micronutrients. Lower admission weight was associated with RFS (odds ratio 0.96, 95% confidence interval [0.93-1.00], p = .035). Less than half of the participants met the weight gain target (>1 kg per week) in the first 3 weeks of admission. DISCUSSION: The incidence of severe RFS was low in this cohort and was associated with lower admission weight. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: This study is one of the largest studies to utilize consensus-defined criteria to diagnose RFS among adult patients admitted for treatment of an ED. This population is still considered to be at risk of RFS and will require close monitoring. The results add to the growing body of research that restriction of energy prescription to prevent RFS may not require the level of conservatism traditionally practiced.

Development, Design and Utilization of a CDSS for Refeeding Syndrome in Real Life Inpatient Care-A Feasibility Study.

BACKGROUND: The refeeding syndrome (RFS) is an oftentimes-unrecognized complication of reintroducing nutrition in malnourished patients that can lead to fatal cardiovascular failure. We hypothesized that a clinical decision support system (CDSS) can improve RFS recognition and management. METHODS: We developed an algorithm from current diagnostic criteria for RFS detection, tested the algorithm on a retrospective dataset and combined the final algorithm with therapy and referral recommendations in a knowledge-based CDSS. The CDSS integration into clinical practice was prospectively investigated for six months. RESULTS: The utilization of the RFS-CDSS lead to RFS diagnosis in 13 out of 21 detected cases (62%). It improved patient-related care and documentation, e.g., RFS-specific coding (E87.7), increased from once coded in 30 month in the retrospective cohort to four times in six months in the prospective cohort and doubled the rate of nutrition referrals in true positive patients (retrospective referrals in true positive patients 33% vs. prospective referrals in true positive patients 71%). CONCLUSION: CDSS-facilitated RFS diagnosis is possible and improves RFS recognition. This effect and its impact on patient-related outcomes needs to be further investigated in a large randomized-controlled trial.

Refeeding Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Refeeding syndrome (RFS) can occur in malnourished patients when normal, enteral, or parenteral feeding is resumed. The syndrome often goes unrecognized and may, in the most severe cases, result in death. The diagnosis of RFS can be crucially facilitated by the use of clinical decision support systems (CDSS). METHODS: The literature in PubMed was searched for current treatment recommendations, randomized intervention studies, and publications on RFS and CDSS. We also took account of insights gained from the development and implementation of our own CDSS for the diagnosis of RFS. RESULTS: The identification of high-risk patients and the recognition of manifest RFS is clinically challenging due to the syndrome's unspecific symptoms and physicians' lack of awareness of the risk of this condition. The literature shows that compared to patients without RFS, malnourished patients with RFS have significantly greater 6-month mortality (odds ratio 1.54, 95% confidence interval: [1.04; 2.28]) and an elevated risk of admission to intensive care (odds ratio 2.71 [1.01; 7.27]). In a prospective testing program, use of our own CDSS led to correct diagnosis in two thirds of cases. CONCLUSION: RFS is difficult to detect and represents a high risk to the patients affected. Appropriate CDSS can identify such patients and ensure proper professional care.

Successful Resuscitation of Cardiac Arrest After Refeeding Syndrome Associated with Hiatal Hernia: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND Refeeding syndrome (RFS) is a life-threatening syndrome, which can cause sudden death. RFS has been reported frequently in young patients with anorexia without organic disease; however, there are few reports in elderly patients with organic disease. Herein, we report a case of cardiac arrest after refeeding syndrome associated with hiatal hernia. CASE REPORT We report the case of a 59-year-old woman who had a diagnosis of RFS during treatment for anorexia secondary to hiatal hernia. She was hospitalized with hypothermia, anemia, and hypovolemic shock and treated with electrolytes, hydration, and transfusion at the Emergency Department. Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy revealed hiatal hernia with severe reflux esophagitis. We initiated parenteral nutrition (8.7 kcal/kg/day). However, QTc prolongation caused pulseless ventricular tachycardia. Temporary cardiac pacing was performed to prevent recurrence. Her nutritional status steadily improved, and she was transferred to another hospital without complications. CONCLUSIONS Patients with gastrointestinal comorbidities are more likely to have inadequate food intake and to be undernourished on admission and therefore should be carefully started on nutritional therapy, considering their risk of RFS.

A comparison of two different refeeding protocols and its effect on hand grip strength and refeeding syndrome: a randomized controlled clinical trial.

PURPOSE: Optimal refeeding protocols in older malnourished hospital patients remain unclear. We aimed to compare the effect of two different refeeding protocols; an assertive and a cautious protocol, on HGS, mortality and refeeding syndrome (RFS), in patients ≥ 65 years METHODS: Patients admitted under medical or surgical category and at risk of RFS, were randomized to either an enteral nutrition (EN) refeeding protocol of 20 kcal/kg/day, reaching energy goals within 3 days (intervention group), or a protocol of 10 kcal/kg/day, reaching goals within 7 days (control group). Primary outcome was the difference in hand grip strength (HGS) at 3 months follow-up, in an intention to treat analysis. RFS (phosphate < 0.65 mmol/L) during the hospital stay and mortality rates at 3 months were secondary outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 85 patients were enrolled, with mean (SD) age of 79.8(7.4) and 54.1% female, 41 in the intervention group and 44 in the control group. HGS was similar at 3 months with mean change of 0.42 kg (95% CI - 2.52 to 3.36, p = 0.78). Serum phosphate < 0.65 mmol/L was seen in 17.1% in the intervention group and 9.3% in the control group, p = 0.29. There was no difference in mortality rates (39% vs 34.1%, p = 0.64). An indication of more respiratory distress was found in the intervention group, 53.6% vs 30.2%, p = 0.029. CONCLUSION: A more assertive refeeding protocol providing 20 kcal/kg/day did not result in improved HGS measured 3 months after discharge compared with a cautious refeeding (10 kcal/kg/day) protocol. No difference in incidence of mortality or RFS was found. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Protocol Record 2017/FO148295, Registered: 21st of February, 2017.

Cardiac Failure Requiring Veno-Arterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (VA-ECMO) Management in a Refeeding Syndrome Patient with Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND Refeeding syndrome is a complex metabolic disorder that develops following rapid nutritional administration after a long period of undernutrition. The onset mechanism involves intracellular transport of phosphorus, potassium, and water, in association with rapid glucose administration. The resulting hypophosphatemia is extremely dangerous and can cause severe heart failure and fatal arrhythmia. We successfully used extracorporeal cardiopulmonary support to manage a case of refeeding syndrome that occurred during the course of treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. There are only a few reports of the use of cardiopulmonary support for the treatment of refeeding syndrome. CASE REPORT A 72-year-old man was admitted to the hospital for treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Despite receiving insulin and nutrition therapy, QT prolongation and ventricular fibrillation appeared on the electrocardiogram. Although coronary angiography was performed in consideration of the possibility of ischemic heart disease, no significant stenosis of the coronary arteries was identified. Due to persistent hypotension and recurrence of ventricular fibrillation, extracorporeal cardiopulmonary support was commenced in the ICU. His serum phosphorus level showed a marked decrease on his first day in the ICU, for which daily replacement therapy was administered during his ICU stay. No fatal arrhythmia developed thereafter. He was weaned off extracorporeal cardiopulmonary support on the fourth day of his ICU stay and was subsequently discharged from the hospital. CONCLUSIONS We suggest vigilant monitoring of electrolytes, including phosphate levels, in diabetic ketoacidosis patients, and active circulatory support, as required, in patients with refeeding syndrome.

Practice-Based Evidence and Clinical Guidance to Support Accelerated Re-Nutrition of Patients With Anorexia Nervosa.

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is characterized by underweight, and the primary goal of treatment is weight restoration. Treatment approaches (ie, hospitalization for weight recovery vs for medical stabilization) and settings (ie, medical/pediatric or psychiatric units) for patients with AN vary between and also within countries. Several specialized eating disorder units worldwide have established high-caloric refeeding (HCR) protocols for patients with AN. In observational studies, HCR shortens hospital stays and increases initial weight gain, the latter being associated with a favorable long-term prognosis. However, clinicians may still remain reluctant to accept this approach for fear of medical complications of HCR, including the risk of refeeding syndrome (RS).1 Research is building toward the development of evidence-based recommendations for safe and effective re-nutrition of underweight patients with AN. This focused review was based on clinical experience and describes 3 different protocols for nutritional management devised by experts from 3 different parts of the world (Australia, Germany, and the United States), in medical refeeding of patients with AN who have established HCR in their clinical units. In addition, and in order to understand energy requirements, empirical data on energy turnover of patients with AN from former metabolic studies are presented. To the best of our knowledge, there is no study reporting on HCR in a cohort of severely malnourished adolescents with AN (ie, with a mean body mass index [BMI] of <15 kg/m2). Therefore, to provide information about the treatment of extremely malnourished patients with AN, we included a recently published HCR protocol for adults with a BMI of <13 kg/m2.2.

Editorial: Refeeding in Anorexia Nervosa: Quo Vadis?

Refeeding is the cornerstone of treatment in anorexia nervosa (AN), a life-threatening eating disorder characterized by severe undernutrition. During refeeding, patients typically gain a large proportion of their body weight within a couple of weeks or months. The aims of this drastic nutritional intervention are mainly somatic stability and the improvement of the mental state of the patient, as a prerequisite for psychotherapy. There has been a recent trend away from the conventional low-calorie "start low, go slow" refeeding approach to higher calorie refeeding with a more rapid weight gain, shorter hospitalization time, and consequently, psychosocial and economic benefits. In favor of higher calorie refeeding, the rate of initial weight gain has been shown to predict weight recovery.1 Furthermore, recent neuroimaging studies suggest that the widespread reductions of gray matter volume and cortical thickness in acutely underweight AN patients abate rapidly after refeeding.2 Although the first studies provided evidence for the relative safety of higher calorie refeeding, particularly in the refeeding syndrome, a rare but possibly fatal complication,3,4 little is known about less acute side effects. However, relative to its significant clinical importance, the topic is understudied, and guidelines vary considerably across different countries. The clinical review at the focus of this editorial seeks to advance the medical literature by juxtaposing the details of refeeding protocols of 3 well-known specialized eating disorder centers.

Anorexia nervosa in adolescents.

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder with peak onset in adolescence, which carries the highest mortality rate of all psychiatric illnesses. It is commonly comorbid with other physical and mental health problems, yet training on management of people with eating disorders and working knowledge of clinicians working with underweight adolescents is inconsistent. This review of anorexia nervosa in adolescents provides an overview of the presentation, aetiology and treatment of this disorder, with a particular focus on the assessment and management of physical health risks, including refeeding syndrome.

ASPEN Consensus Recommendations for Refeeding Syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: In the spring of 2017, the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN) Parenteral Nutrition Safety Committee and the Clinical Practice Committee convened an interprofessional task force to develop consensus recommendations for identifying patients with or at risk for refeeding syndrome (RS) and for avoiding and managing the condition. This report provides narrative review and consensus recommendations in hospitalized adult and pediatric populations. METHODS: Because of the variation in definitions and methods reported in the literature, a consensus process was developed. Subgroups of authors investigated specific issues through literature review. Summaries were presented to the entire group for discussion via email and teleconferences. Each section was then compiled into a master document, several revisions of which were reviewed by the committee. FINDINGS/RECOMMENDATIONS: This group proposes a new clinical definition, and criteria for stratifying risk with treatment and screening strategies. The authors propose that RS diagnostic criteria be stratified as follows: a decrease in any 1, 2, or 3 of serum phosphorus, potassium, and/or magnesium levels by 10%-20% (mild), 20%-30% (moderate), or >30% and/or organ dysfunction resulting from a decrease in any of these and/or due to thiamin deficiency (severe), occurring within 5 days of reintroduction of calories. CONCLUSIONS: These consensus recommendations are intended to provide guidance regarding recognizing risk and identifying, stratifying, avoiding and managing RS. This consensus definition is additionally intended to be used as a basis for further research into the incidence, consequences, pathophysiology, avoidance, and treatment of RS.

Refeeding syndrome: update and clinical advice for prevention, diagnosis and treatment.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The aim of this review is to provide a brief overview of the refeeding syndrome, to discuss more recent advice on diagnosis and treatment, and to raise awareness of this still poorly understood metabolic condition. RECENT FINDINGS: To date, evidence regarding the refeeding syndrome has been very limited. A number of reviews and case reports exist, but only a few are randomized trials. Recently, it has been shown that the vast majority of physicians are unaware of this metabolic condition. Precise guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of this syndrome were lacking for a long time. Now, a consensus statement is available, providing guidance from experts in the field on the management of patients at increased risk of refeeding syndrome (RFS) receiving nutritional therapy. SUMMARY: Due to the increased use of nutritional therapy in inpatient settings, physicians should be aware of possible side effects, particularly in connection with the refeeding syndrome. In this context, every patient should undergo a risk assessment for refeeding syndrome and stratification before starting nutritional therapy. For patients at high risk, nutritional support should be administered with adapted energy and fluid support during the replenishment phase. In addition, the occurrence of RFS during nutritional therapy must be continuously evaluated, and appropriate steps taken if necessary.

Refeeding Syndrome in the Critically Ill: a Literature Review and Clinician's Guide.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To provide an overview of current methods of diagnosis and management of refeeding syndrome in the critically ill patient population. RECENT FINDINGS: Despite recent publications indicating refeeding syndrome (RFS) is an ongoing problem in critically ill patients, there is no standard for the diagnosis and management of this life-threatening condition. There is not a "gold standard" nutrition assessment tool for the critically ill. Currently, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence criteria represent the best clinical assessment tool for RFS. Diagnosis and management with the help of a multidisciplinary metabolic team can decrease morbidity and mortality. Although a universal definition of RFS has yet to be defined, the diagnosis is made in patients with moderate to severe malnutrition who develop electrolyte imbalance after beginning nutritional support. The imbalances potentially can lead to cardiac, pulmonary, and gastrointestinal complications and failure. Standardizing a multidisciplinary nutrition care plan and formulating a protocol for critically ill patients who develop RFS can potentially decrease complication rates and overall mortality.

Refeeding Syndrome.

Refeeding syndrome describes the metabolic disturbances and clinical sequelae that occur in response to nutritional rehabilitation of patients who are moderate to severely malnourished. When risk factors are not identified and nutrition therapy is not managed appropriately, devastating consequences such as electrolyte depletion and imbalances, fluid overload, arrhythmia, seizure, encephalopathy, and death may occur. As this entity is often unrecognized, especially in pediatrics, becoming familiar with the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management strategies will help clinicians caring for children avoid unnecessary morbidity and mortality. [Pediatr Ann. 2019;48(11):e448-e454.].

Successful management and recovery following severe prolonged starvation in a dog.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the successful management of a dog following a period of prolonged food deprivation. CASE SUMMARY: A 7-year-old, intact male Labrador Retriever presented with profound weakness and loss of nearly 50% of his body weight due to severe prolonged starvation after being trapped in a well for 27 days. Electrolyte concentrations were managed with intensive intravenous supplementation during refeeding. The dog's electrolyte abnormalities resolved, wounds healed, and strength returned during the first 3 weeks of treatment. During the next 3 months, body condition score normalized and muscle mass improved. NEW OR UNIQUE INFORMATION PROVIDED: This report describes the management of a severely malnourished dog during refeeding, and highlights treatment considerations that may be important in the prevention of refeeding syndrome in such cases.

[Evaluation of the degree of adherence to the nutritional recommendations of the critical care patient]. / Evaluación del grado de adherencia a las recomendaciones nutricionales en el paciente crítico.

INTRODUCTION: Background: the application of specialized nutritional support (SNE) is difficult at the organizational level due to the complexity of clinical practice guidelines and we do not know the degree of adherence to the published nutritional recommendations. The aim of this study was to assess the degree of adherence to the recommendations of high impact and "do not do" within our environment, in order to show areas for improvement. Methods: survey of nine questions agreed by experts and carried out in different ICUs of our environment, which reflected the recommendations in SNE. Data related to the organizational characteristics and the healthcare provider that indicated the nutritional support were collected. The differences regarding the degree of adherence between the level of care and the presence of an expert in these units were analyzed. Results: thirty-seven ICUs participated, which corresponded mostly to second level hospitals and polyvalent ICUs with an SNE indicated by intensivists. The adherence to the recommendations was > 80%, with three exceptions associated with issues related to the refeeding syndrome (70.3%), the caloric-protein adjustment of nutrition according to the patient's evolutionary phase (51.4%) and the adjustment of protein intake in patients with renal failure (40.5%). There were no differences according to the level of care or the presence of an expert in these ICUs. Only a greater availability of local nutrition protocols was observed in those ICUs with an expertise. Conclusions: there is a high theoretical adherence to the majority of recommendations in the nutritional field, with exceptions that could correspond to areas where there is an opportunity for improvement.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Objetivo: la aplicación del soporte nutricional especializado (SNE) es difícil a nivel organizativo debido a la complejidad de las guías de práctica clínica y desconocemos el grado de adherencia a las recomendaciones nutricionales publicadas. El objetivo del presente estudio fue valorar el grado de adherencia a las recomendaciones de alto impacto y de "no hacer" en nuestro entorno, con la finalidad de objetivar áreas de mejora. Métodos: encuesta de nueve preguntas consensuada por expertos y realizada en diferentes UCI de nuestro medio, que reflejaba las recomendaciones nutricionales en SNE. Se recogieron datos relacionados con las características organizativas y el profesional que indicaba el soporte nutricional. Se analizaron las diferencias en relación al grado de adherencia según el nivel asistencial y a la presencia de un experto en dichas unidades. Resultados: participaron 37 UCI, las cuales pertenecían preferentemente a hospitales de segundo nivel y eran polivalentes, con un SNE indicado por intensivistas. La adherencia a las recomendaciones fue > 80%, con tres excepciones asociadas a ítems relacionados con el síndrome de realimentación (70,3%), al ajuste calórico-proteico de la nutrición según las fases evolutivas del paciente (51,4%) y al ajuste del aporte proteico en pacientes con insuficiencia renal (40,5%). No hubo diferencias en función del nivel asistencial o la presencia de un experto en dichas UCI. Tan solo se objetivó una mayor disponibilidad de protocolos de nutrición locales en aquellas UCI que contaban con un experto. Conclusiones: existe una alta adherencia teórica a la mayoría de recomendaciones de ámbito nutricional, objetivándose excepciones que se podrían corresponder a áreas en las que hay una oportunidad de mejora.

Refeeding syndrome in the gastroenterology practice: how concerned should we be?

Clinical nutrition is emerging as a major area in gastroenterology practice. Most gastrointestinal disorders interfere with digestive physiology and compromise nutritional status. Refeeding syndrome (RS) may increase morbidity and mortality in gastroenterology patients. Literature search using the keywords "Refeeding Syndrome", "Hypophosphatemia", "Hypomagnesemia" and "Hypokalemia". Data regarding definition, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, risk factors, management and prevention of RS were collected. Most evidence comes from case reports, narrative reviews and scarse observational trials. RS results from the potentially fatal shifts in fluid and electrolytes that may occur in malnourished patients receiving nutritional therapy. No standard definition is established and epidemiologic data is lacking. RS is characterized by hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia, vitamin deficiency and abnormal glucose metabolism. Oral, enteral and parenteral nutrition may precipitate RS. Awareness and risk stratification using NICE criteria is essential to prevent and manage malnourished patients. Nutritional support should be started using low energy replacement and thiamine supplementation. Correction of electrolytes and fluid imbalances must be started before feeding. Malnourished patients with inflammatory bowel disease, liver cirrhosis, chronic intestinal failure and patients referred for endoscopic gastrostomy due to prolonged dysphagia present high risk of RS, in the gastroenterology practice. RS should be considered before starting nutritional support. Preventive measures are crucial, including fluid and electrolyte replacement therapy, vitamin supplementation and use of hypocaloric regimens. Gastroenterology patients must be viewed as high risk patients but the impact of RS in the outcome is not clearly defined in current literature.