Distribution of lignin-carbohydrate complex in plant kingdom and its functionality as alternative medicine.

Lignin-carbohydrate complexes (LCCs) are major cell wall components formed by the dehydrogenation of three monolignols, p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols. Diverse pharmacological activities of LCCs distributed into various plants were summarized. LCCs showed one order higher anti-HIV activity than tannins and flavonoids. Mechanism of anti-HIV activity induction includes the inhibition of HIV adsorption to and penetration into the cells, and inhibition of reverse transcriptase and protease. Limited digestion experiments demonstrated that a phenylpropenoid polymer, but not a sugar moiety, is important for anti-HIV activity. Dehydrogenation polymers of phenylpropenoids without carbohydrate showed higher anti-HIV activity, whereas phenylpropenoid monomers were inactive, suggesting the importance of highly polymerized structure. LCCs inhibited the plaque formation and RNA polymerase activity of influenza virus, and reduced the lethality of virus infection in mice. LCCs inhibited the plaque formation of HSV-1, and oral intake of LCC-vitamin C tablet reduced the symptoms in HSV-1-infected patients. LCCs stimulated the iodination of myeloperoxidase-positive human monocytes, neutrophiles and promyelocytic leukemia that may be involved in the bacterial killing mechanism. LCCs stimulated splenocyte proliferation, and showed both pro- and anti-inflammatory activity in activated macrophage. Preliminary DNA array analysis demonstrated the activation of the signal pathway of chemokine expression via TLR2. The molecular weight, solubility, sterilization method and association with other components during extraction step may produce diverse biological activity of LCCs. Broad and potent anti-viral activity and synergism with vitamin C suggest functionality of LCC as alternative medicine.

Characterization of the RNA-binding properties of the triple-gene-block protein 2 of Bamboo mosaic virus.

The triple-gene-block protein 2 (TGBp2) of Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) is a transmembrane protein which was proposed to be involved in viral RNA binding during virus transport. Here, we report on the RNA-binding properties of TGBp2. Using tyrosine fluorescence spectroscopy and UV-crosslinking assays, the TGBp2 solubilized with Triton X-100 was found to interact with viral RNA in a non-specific manner. These results raise the possibility that TGBp2 facilitates intracellular delivery of viral RNA through non-specific protein-RNA interaction.

Subcellular localization and expression of bamboo mosaic virus satellite RNA-encoded protein.

The satellite RNA of bamboo mosaic virus (satBaMV) has a single open reading frame encoding a non-structural protein, P20, which facilitates long-distance movement of satBaMV in BaMV and satBaMV co-infected plants. Immunohistochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy revealed that the P20 protein accumulated in the cytoplasm and nuclei in co-infected cells. P20 and the helper virus coat protein (CP) were highly similar in their subcellular localization, except that aggregates of BaMV virions were not labelled with anti-P20 serum. The BaMV CP protein was fairly abundant in mesophyll cells, whilst P20 was more frequently detected in mesophyll cells and vascular tissues. The expression kinetics of the P20 protein was similar to but slightly earlier than that of CP in co-infected Bambusa oldhamii protoplasts and Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. However, satBaMV-encoded protein levels declined rapidly in the late phase of co-infection. During co-infection, in addition to the intact P20, a low-molecular-mass polypeptide of 16 kDa was identified as a P20 C-terminally truncated product; the possible method of generation of the truncated protein is discussed.

Induction of protective immunity in swine by recombinant bamboo mosaic virus expressing foot-and-mouth disease virus epitopes.

BACKGROUND: Plant viruses can be employed as versatile vectors for the production of vaccines by expressing immunogenic epitopes on the surface of chimeric viral particles. Although several viruses, including tobacco mosaic virus, potato virus X and cowpea mosaic virus, have been developed as vectors, we aimed to develop a new viral vaccine delivery system, a bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV), that would carry larger transgene loads, and generate better immunity in the target animals with fewer adverse environmental effects. METHODS: We engineered the BaMV as a vaccine vector expressing the antigenic epitope(s) of the capsid protein VP1 of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The recombinant BaMV plasmid (pBVP1) was constructed by replacing DNA encoding the 35 N-terminal amino acid residues of the BaMV coat protein with that encoding 37 amino acid residues (T128-N164) of FMDV VP1. RESULTS: The pBVP1 was able to infect host plants and to generate a chimeric virion BVP1 expressing VP1 epitopes in its coat protein. Inoculation of swine with BVP1 virions resulted in the production of anti-FMDV neutralizing antibodies. Real-time PCR analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from the BVP1-immunized swine revealed that they produced VP1-specific IFN-gamma. Furthermore, all BVP1-immunized swine were protected against FMDV challenge. CONCLUSION: Chimeric BaMV virions that express partial sequence of FMDV VP1 can effectively induce not only humoral and cell-mediated immune responses but also full protection against FMDV in target animals. This BaMV-based vector technology may be applied to other vaccines that require correct expression of antigens on chimeric viral particles.

Mutational analysis of a helicase motif-based RNA 5'-triphosphatase/NTPase from bamboo mosaic virus.

The helicase-like domain of BaMV replicase possesses NTPase and RNA 5'-triphosphatase activities. In this study, mutational effects of the helicase signature motifs and residue L543 on the two activities were investigated. Either activity was inactivated by K643A-S644A, D702A, D730A, R855A, or L543P mutations. On the other hand, Q826A, D858A and L543A had activities, in terms of k(cat)/K(m), reduced by 5- to 15-fold. AMPPNP, a nonhydrolyzable ATP analogue, competitively inhibited RNA 5'-triphosphatase activity. Analogies of mutational effects on the two activities and approximation of K(i(AMPPNP)) and K(m(ATP)) suggest that the catalytic sites of the activities are overlapped. Mutational effects on the viral accumulation in Chenopodium quinoa indicated that the activities manifested by the domain are required for BaMV survival. Results also suggest that Q826 in motif V plays an additional role in preventing tight binding to ATP, which would otherwise decrease further RNA 5'-triphosphatase, leading to demise of the virus in plant.

Structural and functional analysis of the cis-acting elements required for plus-strand RNA synthesis of Bamboo mosaic virus.

Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) has a single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome. The secondary structure of the 3'-terminal sequence of the minus-strand RNA has been predicted by MFOLD and confirmed by enzymatic structural probing to consist of a large, stable stem-loop and a small, unstable stem-loop. To identify the promoter for plus-strand RNA synthesis in this region, transcripts of 39, 77, and 173 nucleotides (Ba-39, Ba-77, and Ba-173, respectively) derived from the 3' terminus of the minus-strand RNA were examined by an in vitro RNA-dependent RNA polymerase assay for the ability to direct RNA synthesis. Ba-77 and Ba-39 appeared to direct the RNA synthesis efficiently, while Ba-173 failed. Ba-77/delta5, with a deletion of the 3'-terminal UUUUC sequence in Ba-77, directed the RNA synthesis only to 7% that of Ba-77. However, Ba-77/delta16 and Ba-77/delta31, with longer deletions but preserving the terminal UUUUC sequence of Ba-77, restored the template activity to about 60% that of the wild type. Moreover, mutations that changed the sequence in the stem of the large stem-loop interfered with the efficiency of RNA synthesis and RNA accumulation in vivo. The mutant with an internal deletion in the region between the terminal UUUUC sequence and the large stem-loop reduced the viral RNA accumulation in protoplasts, but mutants with insertions did not. Taken together, these results suggest that three cis-acting elements in the 3' end of the minus-strand RNA, namely, the terminal UUUUC sequence, the sequence in the large stem-loop, and the distance between these two regions, are involved in modulating the efficiency of BaMV plus-strand viral RNA synthesis.

A conserved secondary structure in the hypervariable region at the 5' end of Bamboo mosaic virus satellite RNA is functionally interchangeable.

Satellite RNA (satRNA) associated with Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) is dependent on BaMV for replication and encapsidation. Molecular analyses of total RNA extracted from bamboo species collected worldwide revealed that 26 out of 61 BaMV isolates harbored satBaMV. Among them, two phylogenetically distinguishable groups, A and B, with a genetic diversity of 6.9 +/- 0.7% were identified. Greatest sequence diversity occurred in the 5' untranslated region (UTR) that contained one hypervariable region with variations of up to 20.7%. Concurrent covariations in the 5' hypervariable sequences support the existence of a conserved apical hairpin stem-loop structure, which was earlier mapped by enzymatic probings and functional analyses [Annamalai, P., Hsu, Y.H., Liu, Y.P., Tsai, C.H., Lin, N.S., 2003. Structural and mutational analyses of cis-acting sequences in the 5'-untranslated region of satellite RNA of bamboo mosaic potexvirus. Virology 311 (1), 229-239]. Furthermore, chimeric satBaMVs generated by interchanging the hypervariable region between groups A and B demonstrated the replication competence of satBaMV isolates in Nicotiana benthamiana protoplasts co-inoculated with BaMV RNA. The results suggest that an evolutionarily conserved secondary structure exists in the hypervariable region of 5' UTR of satBaMV.

Arg-16 and Arg-21 in the N-terminal region of the triple-gene-block protein 1 of Bamboo mosaic virus are essential for virus movement.

The protein encoded by the first gene of the triple gene block (TGBp1) of potexviruses is required for movement of the viruses. It has been reported that single Arg-->Ala substitutions at position 11, 16 or 21 of TGBp1 of Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) eliminate its RNA-binding activity, while substitutions at position 16 or 21 only affect its NTPase activity (Liou et al., Virology 277, 336-344, 2000). However, it remains unclear whether these Arg-->Ala substitutions also affect the movement of BaMV in plants. To address this question, six mutants of BaMV, each containing either a single- or a double-alanine substitution at Arg-11, Arg-16 and Arg-21 of TGBp1, were constructed and used to infect Chenopodium quinoa and Nicotiana benthamiana. We found that all of the BaMV mutants were able to replicate in protoplasts of N. benthamiana. However, only the mutant with an Arg-11-->Ala substitution in TGBp1 remained capable of movement from cell to cell in plants. Mutants with Arg-16, Arg-21 or both Arg-16 and Arg-21 of TGBp1 replaced with alanine were defective in virus movement. This defect was suppressed when a wild-type TGBp1 allele was co-introduced into the cells using a novel satellite replicon. The ability to trans-complement the movement defect by the wild-type TGBp1 strongly suggests that the Arg-->Ala substitution at position 16 or 21 of TGBp1, which diminishes the RNA-binding and NTPase activities of TGBp1, also eliminates the capability of BaMV to move from cell to cell in host plants.

Critical residues for GTP methylation and formation of the covalent m7GMP-enzyme intermediate in the capping enzyme domain of bamboo mosaic virus.

Open reading frame 1 of Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV), a Potexvirus in the alphavirus-like superfamily, encodes a 155-kDa replicase responsible for the formation of the 5' cap structure and replication of the viral RNA genome. The N-terminal domain of the viral replicase functions as an mRNA capping enzyme, which exhibits both GTP methyltransferase and S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet)-dependent guanylyltransferase activities. We mutated each of the four conserved amino acids among the capping enzymes of members within alphavirus-like superfamily and a dozen of other residues to gain insight into the structure-function relationship of the viral enzyme. The mutant enzymes were purified and subsequently characterized. H68A, the mutant enzyme bearing a substitution at the conserved histidine residue, has an approximately 10-fold increase in GTP methyltransferase activity but completely loses the ability to form the covalent m(7)GMP-enzyme intermediate. High-pressure liquid chromatography analysis confirmed the production of m(7)GTP by the GTP methyltransferase activity of H68A. Furthermore, the produced m(7)GTP sustained the formation of the m(7)GMP-enzyme intermediate for the wild-type enzyme in the presence of S-adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy), suggesting that the previously observed AdoMet-dependent guanylation of the enzyme using GTP results from reactions of GTP methylation and subsequently guanylation of the enzyme using m(7)GTP. Mutations occurred at the other three conserved residues (D122, R125, and Y213), and H66 resulted in abolition of activities for both GTP methylation and formation of the covalent m(7)GMP-enzyme intermediate. Mutations of amino acids such as K121, C234, D310, W312, R316, K344, W406, and K409 decreased both activities by various degrees, and the extents of mutational effects follow similar trends. The affinity to AdoMet of the various BaMV capping enzymes, except H68A, was found in good correlations with not only the magnitude of GTP methyltransferase activity but also the capability of forming the m(7)GMP-enzyme intermediate. Taken together with the AdoHcy dependence of guanylation of the enzyme using m(7)GTP, a basic working mechanism, with the contents of critical roles played by the binding of AdoMet/AdoHcy, of the BaMV capping enzyme is proposed and discussed.

Functional analysis of the cloverleaf-like structure in the 3' untranslated region of bamboo mosaic potexvirus RNA revealed dual roles in viral RNA replication and long distance movement.

The 3' untranslated region (UTR) of bamboo mosaic potexvirus (BaMV) RNA was identified to fold into a tertiary structure comprising a cloverleaf-like structure designated ABC domain followed by a major stem-loop D, which in turn is followed by a pseudoknot E and a poly(A) tail. The coat protein accumulation level of the mutant, BaMV40A/DeltaABC, lacking ABC domain was just 15% that of wild-type when inoculated into protoplasts of Nicotiana benthamiana. This suggested that ABC domain might play an important role in BaMV RNA replication. To define the precise role of each of the three stem-loops of ABC domain in RNA replication, three mutants BaMV40A/DeltaA, -/DeltaB, and -/DeltaC each lacking stem-loop A, B, and C, respectively, were created. Our results showed that accumulation of viral products of mutants BaMV40A/DeltaB and -/DeltaC were not as efficient as wild-type. On the contrary, level of accumulation of viral products of BaMV/DeltaA was similar to that of wild-type in protoplasts and inoculated leaves. Interestingly, the accumulation of viral products was not as efficient as that of wild-type in systemic leaves, implying that stem-loop A is dispensable for replication, but signifies a role in systemic accumulation. Using UV cross-linking and competition experiments, it was demonstrated that the E. coli expressed helicase domain of BaMV ORF1 can preferentially interact with the ABC domain.

Structural and mutational analyses of cis-acting sequences in the 5'-untranslated region of satellite RNA of bamboo mosaic potexvirus.

The satellite RNA of Bamboo mosaic virus (satBaMV) contains on open reading frame for a 20-kDa protein that is flanked by a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of 159 nucleotides (nt) and a 3'-UTR of 129 nt. A secondary structure was predicted for the 5'-UTR of satBaMV RNA, which folds into a large stem-loop (LSL) and a small stem-loop. Enzymatic probing confirmed the existence of LSL (nt 8-138) in the 5'-UTR. The essential cis-acting sequences in the 5'-UTR required for satBaMV RNA replication were determined by deletion and substitution mutagenesis. Their replication efficiencies were analyzed in Nicotiana benthamiana protoplasts and Chenopodium quinoa plants coinoculated with helper BaMV RNA. All deletion mutants abolished the replication of satBaMV RNA, whereas mutations introduced in most of the loop regions and stems showed either no replication or a decreased replication efficiency. Mutations that affected the positive-strand satBaMV RNA accumulation also affected the accumulation of negative-strand RNA; however, the accumulation of genomic and subgenomic RNAs of BaMV were not affected. Moreover, covariation analyses of natural satBaMV variants provide substantial evidence that the secondary structure in the 5'-UTR of satBaMV is necessary for efficient replication.