In memory of Paul Green, PhD.

The manuscript describes the important research and practice contributions of Paul Green PhD. The manuscript also expresses the sadness of all who knew Dr. Green at his untimely demise.

Developmental Cognitive Deficits: A Historical Overview of Early Cases.

In this chapter, I will present an overview of early case descriptions of specific isolated cognitive deficits in children for which no clear brain impairment could be demonstrated and which were therefore considered to be congenital or developmental in nature. Three kinds of syndromes will be discussed. First, more general deficits like the attention and hyperactivity disorder and congenital aphasia will be presented. The second category relates to the more specific cognitive deficits, like developmental prosopagnosia, that have been reported, especially from the early 1980s onwards. In particular, early reports of specific congenital deficits in the areas of attention, language, perception, and memory will be presented. And finally, I will briefly discuss early case descriptions of individuals with autism and savant syndrome. Instead of suffering from a specific cognitive deficit, the latter show a special talent.

History of Neuropsychological Assessment.

This chapter presents a historical overview of observations, instruments, and approaches in the area of neuropsychological assessment. In the 17th and 18th century literature dealing especially with language disorders following a brain disorder, one finds observations of physicians of striking dissociations of mental faculties that were impaired while others remained intact. Around the middle of the 19th century, neuropsychiatrists like Carl Wernicke began to develop procedures for assessing more specific components of mental functioning. German physicians, Conrad Rieger and Theodor Ziehen, seem to have developed the first neuropsychological test batteries. Kurt Goldstein, inspired by the rising Gestalt theory, argued that not the test score but the strategy used by a patient to perform a task is important. Alexander Luria also promoted an approach to assessment that was mainly based on subjective judgment. Studies on individual differences led to the development of an intelligence test battery by Alfred Binet. This battery was later transformed into the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests for selecting soldiers. Components of these intelligence tests have survived in the test kit of the modern neuropsychologist. This tradition also stimulated the development of psychometric analysis of tests. Two pioneers in the field of neuropsychological assessment were Shepherd Ivory Franz, favoring a clinical approach, and Ward Halstead, stimulating a strongly psychometric-based approach. The evaluation of language disorders has always been a specific area, requiring its own set of tests. The first comprehensive language battery was compiled by Bastian. Around the middle of the 20th century, when the localization of function approach had been rejected, neurologists preferred to examine language disorders clinically, using a battery that evaluated speech, comprehension, reading, and writing.

Historical Pathway from Description of Cognitive Recovery to Formal Neuropsychological Rehabilitation.

Neuropsychological rehabilitation is one of the subspecialties of neuropsychology, along with neuropsychological assessment, cognitive process descriptions, and anatomo-functional correlation, but it is still frequently underrecognized, even from a historical point of view. In this chronological review, we propose following some of the historical descriptions of cognitive recovery, and the suggested procedures and therapies to improve this recovery from mythological periods and the antiquity to recent contemporary periods and the birth of formal neuropsychological rehabilitation in neurological and psychiatric conditions.

A.R. Luria's Approach to Neuropsychological Assessment and Rehabilitation.

Luria is one of the most influential authors in cognitive neuroscience, and in particular neuropsychology. New scientific achievements and clinical observations have significantly supported many of his suggestions and hypotheses. The article describes the basic concepts of neuropsychological evaluation and rehabilitation, associated with the method of syndrome analysis developed by Luria for diagnosis mental function and focus in the qualitative interpretation of the results neuropsychological diagnosis. Luria is regarded as a pioneer in cognitive rehabilitation. His ideas have maintained relevance and have continued to be developed and analyzed. Luria is presented as one of the major founders of contemporary neuropsychology from the fundamental point of view and the clinical perspective. His influence has continued significantly during the 21st century.

The test of time: a history of clock drawing.

OBJECTIVE: The clock drawing test (CDT) has become one of the most widely used cognitive screening instruments in clinical and research settings. Its effectiveness, acceptability, and quick and easy administration have made it a staple for cognitive screening in dementia and a wide range of brain disorders. Despite a spike in popularity since the 1990s, its origins are relatively unknown. The goal of this review is to chronicle its saga and chart its usage over time. METHODS: PsycInfo, Medline, and PubMed literature searches were performed from earliest record to June 2016, in addition to manual cross-referencing of bibliographies, with a focus before 1990. Summary of relevant articles and books up until 1989 is included, as well as clinical applications and surveys that track CDT usage over time. RESULTS: While MacDonald Critchley's well-known textbook from 1953, The Parietal Lobes, is often cited as the first mention of the CDT, its recorded use actually stretches back more than a century to 1915. A review of the literature shows that the CDT began as a test for aphasia-related disorders and constructional apraxia until its entry into contemporary cognitive screening in the 1980s when it primarily became a cognitive screen. Its usage took off in 1989 with over 2000 publications since. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a fairly obscure existence for decades, the CDT has emerged as an effective and ideal cognitive screening instrument for a wide range of conditions. Its use continues to increase, and it has been incorporated into several widely used cognitive screening batteries. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fifty Years of Prefrontal Cortex Research: Impact on Assessment.

Our knowledge of the functions of the prefrontal cortex, often called executive, supervisory, or control, has been transformed over the past 50 years. After operationally defining terms for clarification, we review the impact of advances in functional, structural, and theoretical levels of understanding upon neuropsychological assessment practice as a means of identifying 11 principles/challenges relating to assessment of executive function. Three of these were already known 50 years ago, and 8 have been confirmed or emerged since. Key themes over this period have been the emergence of the use of naturalistic tests to address issues of "ecological validity"; discovery of the complexity of the frontal lobe control system; invention of new tests for clinical use; development of key theoretical frameworks that address the issue of the role of prefrontal cortex systems in the organization of human cognition; the move toward considering brain systems rather than brain regions; the advent of functional neuroimaging, and its emerging integration into clinical practice. Despite these huge advances, however, practicing neuropsychologists are still desperately in need of new ways of measuring executive function. We discuss pathways by which this might happen, including decoupling the two levels of explanation (information processing; brain structure) and integrating very recent technological advances into the neuropsychologist's toolbox. (JINS, 2017, 23, 755-767).

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Historical Neuropsychological Perspective.

The behavior patterns of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention that would ultimately become recognized as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have been described for centuries. Nevertheless, in the past 35 years, advances in diagnostic methods, identification of biomarkers, and treatments have advanced at an exponential rate. ADHD is now recognized as the most common behavioral disorder of childhood, with risks extending well into adulthood for both males and females, leading to its identification as a significant public health issue. This historical neuropsychological review of ADHD emphasizes scientific highlights in the past 35 years related to ADHD, including the evolution of the diagnosis (from Hyperkinetic Reaction of Childhood to ADHD), influential theories (executive functions, cognitive-energetic, delay aversion), landmark treatment studies (Multimodal Treatment of ADHD [MTA] and Preschool ADHD Treatment Study [PATS]), and advances in brain mapping techniques (anatomic, functional, and resting state magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging). The review concludes by highlighting the challenges of studying and treating a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder like ADHD, with emphasis on associated disorders and conditions (learning disabilities, sluggish cognitive tempo), special populations (girls, preschoolers, adults), and recommendations for scientific inquiry in the next 35 years. Neuropsychologists are well positioned to address the clinical and research challenges of the next generation of studies, especially involving advances in understanding the sexual dimor.phism, full developmental course, and dynamic risks associated with ADHD. (JINS, 2017, 23, 916-929).

Neuropsychology of Learning Disabilities: The Past and the Future.

Over the past 50 years, research on children and adults with learning disabilities has seen significant advances. Neuropsychological research historically focused on the administration of tests sensitive to brain dysfunction to identify putative neural mechanisms underlying learning disabilities that would serve as the basis for treatment. Led by research on classifying and identifying learning disabilities, four pivotal changes in research paradigms have produced a contemporary scientific, interdisciplinary, and international understanding of these disabilities. These changes are (1) the emergence of cognitive science, (2) the development of quantitative and molecular genetics, (3) the advent of noninvasive structural and functional neuroimaging, and (4) experimental trials of interventions focused on improving academic skills and addressing comorbid conditions. Implications for practice indicate a need to move neuropsychological assessment away from a primary focus on systematic, comprehensive assessment of cognitive skills toward more targeted performance-based assessments of academic achievement, comorbid conditions, and intervention response that lead directly to evidence-based treatment plans. Future research will continue to cross disciplinary boundaries to address questions regarding the interaction of neurobiological and contextual variables, the importance of individual differences in treatment response, and an expanded research base on (a) the most severe cases, (b) older people with LDs, and (c) domains of math problem solving, reading comprehension, and written expression. (JINS, 2017, 23, 930-940).

How technology is reshaping cognitive assessment: Lessons from the Framingham Heart Study.

OBJECTIVE: This article elucidates how the Boston process approach (BPA) can amplify the role of neuropsychology in the study of preclinical and clinical dementia, particularly Alzheimer's disease (AD), and how advancements in technology expand BPA capacity objectively and exponentially. METHOD: The BPA is based on a conceptualization of cognition as being comprised of multiple processes, the nature of which could not possibly be captured by a single score on a test or battery of tests. Identification of these processes is only possible with careful observation of an individual during the entire testing process to determine how, when, and why a person fails, which helps to reveal the integrity of the cognitive processes underlying the behavior. RESULTS: BPA use within the Framingham Heart Study is described, including how digital technology has been incorporated to enhance the sensitivity of BPA to detect insidious onset changes even earlier than had been previously possible. The digital technology movement will dramatically alter the means by which cognitive function is assessed going forward. CONCLUSIONS: Technological advances will catalyze groundbreaking discoveries for effective treatments of neurodegenerative cognitive disorders, such as AD, and inform novel strategies for dementia prevention and sustained lifelong cognitive health. (PsycINFO Database Record

Past, present, and prospects: Reflections 40 years on from the selective impairment of semantic memory (Warrington, 1975).

We summarize the main findings and conclusions of Warrington's (1975) paper, The Selective Impairment of Semantic memory, a neuropsychological paper that described three cases with degenerative neurological conditions [Warrington, E. K. (1975). The selective impairment of semantic memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27, 635-657]. We consider the developments that have followed from its publication and give a selective overview of the field in 2014. The initial impact of the paper was on neuropsychological investigations of semantic loss followed some 14 years later by the identification of Semantic Dementia (the condition shown by the original cases) as a distinctive form of degenerative disease with unique clinical and pathological characteristics. We discuss the distinction between disorders of semantic storage and refractory semantic access, the evidence for category- and modality-specific impairments of semantics, and the light that has been shed on the structure and organization of semantic memory. Finally we consider the relationship between semantic memory and the skills of reading and writing, phonological processing, and autobiographical memory.