Commentary: Value of information case study strongly supports use of the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC).

A Value of Information (VOI) analysis can play a key role in decision-making for adopting new approach methodologies (NAMs). We applied EPA's recently developed VOI framework to the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC). Obtaining/deriving a TTC value for use as a toxicity reference value (TRV) for substances with limited toxicity data was shown to provide equivalent or greater health protection, immense return on investment (ROI), greater net benefit, and substantially lower costs of delay (CoD) compared with TRVs derived from either traditional human health assessment (THHA) chronic toxicity testing in lab animals or the 5-day in vivo EPA Transcriptomic Assessment Product (ETAP). For all nine exposure scenarios examined, the TTC was more economical terms of CoD and ROI than the ETAP or the THHA; expected net benefit was similar for the TTC and ETAP with both of these more economical than the THHA The TTC ROI was immensely greater (5,000,000-fold on average) than the ROI for THHA and the ETAP ROI (100,000-fold on average). These results support the use of the TTC for substances within its domain of applicability to waive requiring certain in vivo tests, or at a minimum, as an initial screening step before conducting either the ETAP or THHA in vivo studies.

Improving reliability and reducing costs of cardiotoxicity assessments using laser-induced cell poration on microelectrode arrays.

Drug-induced cardiotoxicity is a major barrier to drug development and a main cause of withdrawal of marketed drugs. Drugs can strongly alter the spontaneous functioning of the heart by interacting with the cardiac membrane ion channels. If these effects only surface during in vivo preclinical tests, clinical trials or worse after commercialization, the societal and economic burden will be significant and seriously hinder the efficient drug development process. Hence, cardiac safety pharmacology requires in vitro electrophysiological screening assays of all drug candidates to predict cardiotoxic effects before clinical trials. In the past 10 years, microelectrode array (MEA) technology began to be considered a valuable approach in pharmaceutical applications. However, an effective tool for high-throughput intracellular measurements, compatible with pharmaceutical standards, is not yet available. Here, we propose laser-induced optoacoustic poration combined with CMOS-MEA technology as a reliable and effective platform to detect cardiotoxicity. This approach enables the acquisition of high-quality action potential recordings from large numbers of cardiomyocytes within the same culture well, providing reliable data using single-well MEA devices and single cardiac syncytia per each drug. Thus, this technology could be applied in drug safety screening platforms reducing times and costs of cardiotoxicity assessments, while simultaneously improving the data reliability.

Rapid Evaluation of Toxicity of Chemical Compounds Using Zebrafish Embryos.

The zebrafish is a widely used vertebrate model organism for the disease and phenotype-based drug discovery. The zebrafish generates many offspring, has transparent embryos and rapid external development. Zebrafish embryos can, therefore, also be used for the rapid evaluation of toxicity of the drugs that are precious and available in small quantities. In the present article, a method for the efficient screening of the toxicity of chemical compounds using 1-5-day post fertilization embryos is described. The embryos are monitored by stereomicroscope to investigate the phenotypic defects caused by the exposure to different concentrations of compounds. Half-maximal lethal concentrations (LC50) of the compounds are also determined. The present study required 3-6 mg of an inhibitor compound, and the whole experiment takes about 8-10 h to be completed by an individual in a laboratory having basic facilities. The current protocol is suitable for testing any compound to identify intolerable toxic or off-target effects of the compound in the early phase of drug discovery and to detect subtle toxic effects that may be missed in the cell culture or other animal models. The method reduces procedural delays and costs of drug development.

A quick methodology for the evaluation of preliminary toxicity levels in soil samples associated to a potentially heavy-metal pollution in an abandoned ore mining site.

The risk assessment of pollution associated with metal extraction process is a social responsibility. The initial goal of this type of assessment should be the use of a methodology able to combine the use of easy application, low cost and high efficiency-techniques to provide the necessary information with the least amount of investment in time and money as possible. A suitable option maybe a combination of a simple, quick and reliable analytical technique such as PXRF with bioassays and chemometric tools like HCA, PCA or LDA as a viable approach to carrying out a preliminary estimation of phytotoxicity levels associated to the soil sampled in a metal-contaminated area. The method we propose has been shown to be a quick, economical and reliable tool for use in the first stages of environmental risk characterization in mining areas. Particularly, the use of root elongation (RE) as the classification criteria provides a viable approach for selecting the final samples (or zones) in which an "in-depth" investigation plan will be designed as part of a future remediation strategy.

Animal testing and its alternatives - the most important omics is economics.

For a long time, the discussion about animal testing vs its alternatives centered on animal welfare. This was a static warfare, or at least a gridlock, where life scientists had to take a position and make their value choices and hardly anyone changed sides. Technical advances have changed the frontline somewhat, with in vitro and in silico methods gaining more ground. Only more recently has the economic view begun to have an impact: Many animal tests are simply too costly, take too long, and give misleading results. As an extension and update to previous articles in this series written a decade ago, we reanalyze the economic landscape of especially regulatory use of animal testing and this time also consider respective alternative tests. Despite some ambiguity and data gaps, which we have filled with crude estimates, a picture emerges of globally regulated industries that are subject to stark geographic and sectorial differences in regulation, which determine their corresponding animal use. Both animal testing and its alternatives are industries in their own right, offering remarkable business opportunities for biotech and IT companies as well as contract research organizations. In light of recent revelations as to the reproducibility and relevance issues of many animal tests, the economic consequences of incorrect results and the reasons for still maintaining often outdated animal test approaches are discussed.

Novel method for rapid toxicity screening of magnetic nanoparticles.

Iron oxide nanoparticles have attracted a great deal of research interest and have been widely used in bioscience and clinical research including as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging, hyperthermia and magnetic field assisted radionuclide therapy. It is therefore important to develop methods, which can provide high-throughput screening of biological responses that can predict toxicity. The use of nanoelectrodes for single cell analysis can play a vital role in this process by providing relatively fast, comprehensive, and cost-effective assessment of cellular responses. We have developed a new method for in vitro study of the toxicity of magnetic nanoparticles (NP) based on the measurement of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) by a novel nanoelectrode. Previous studies have suggested that ROS generation is frequently observed with NP toxicity. We have developed a stable probe for measuring intracellular ROS using platinized carbon nanoelectrodes with a cavity on the tip integrated into a micromanipulator on an upright microscope. Our results show a significant difference for intracellular levels of ROS measured in HEK293 and LNCaP cancer cells before and after exposure to 10 nm size iron oxide NP. These results are markedly different from ROS measured after cell incubation with the same concentration of NP using standard methods where no differences have been detected. In summary we have developed a label-free method for assessing nanoparticle toxicity using the rapid (less than 30 minutes) measurement of ROS with a novel nanoelectrode.

Improvements and cost-effective measures to the automated intermittent water renewal system for toxicity testing with sediments.

The push to make bioassays more sensitive has meant an increased duration of testing to look at more chronic endpoints. To conduct these longer bioassays through the use of traditional bioassay methods can be difficult, as many traditional bioassays have employed manual water changes, which take considerable time and effort. To that end, static-renewal systems were designed to provide researchers a technique to ease the manual water change burden. One of the most well-known static-renewal designs, the static intermittent renewal system (STIR) was produced by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1993. This system is still being used in laboratories across the globe today. However, these initial designs have become rather dated as new technologies and methods have been developed that make these systems easier to build and operate. The following information details changes to the initial design and a proof of concept experiment with the benthic invertebrate, Chironomus tepperi, to validate the modifications to the original system.

Discriminating modes of toxic action in mice using toxicity in BALB/c mouse fibroblast (3T3) cells.

The objective of this study was to determine whether toxicity in mouse fibroblast cells (3T3 cells) could predict toxicity in mice. Synthesized data on toxicity was subjected to regression analysis and it was observed that relationship of toxicities between mice and 3T3 cells was not strong (R2 = 0.41). Inclusion of molecular descriptors (e.g. ionization, pKa) improved the regression to R2 = 0.56, indicating that this relationship is influenced by kinetic processes of chemicals or specific toxic mechanisms associated to the compounds. However, to determine if we were able to discriminate modes of action (MOAs) in mice using the toxicities generated from 3T3 cells, compounds were first classified into "baseline" and "reactive" guided by the toxic ratio (TR) for each compound in mice. Sequence, binomial and recursive partitioning analyses provided strong predictions of MOAs in mice based upon toxicities in 3T3 cells. The correct classification of MOAs based on these methods was 86%. Nearly all the baseline compounds predicted from toxicities in 3T3 cells were identified as baseline compounds from the TR in mice. The incorrect assignment of MOAs for some compounds is hypothesized to be due to experimental uncertainty that exists in toxicity assays for both mice and 3T3 cells. Conversely, lack of assignment can also arise because some reactive compounds have MOAs that are different in mice compared to 3T3 cells. The methods developed here are novel and contribute to efforts to reduce animal numbers in toxicity tests that are used to evaluate risks associated with organic pollutants in the environment.

Integrated testing strategies can be optimal for chemical risk classification.

There is an urgent need to refine strategies for testing the safety of chemical compounds. This need arises both from the financial and ethical costs of animal tests, but also from the opportunities presented by new in-vitro and in-silico alternatives. Here we explore the mathematical theory underpinning the formulation of optimal testing strategies in toxicology. We show how the costs and imprecisions of the various tests, and the variability in exposures and responses of individuals, can be assembled rationally to form a Markov Decision Problem. We compute the corresponding optimal policies using well developed theory based on Dynamic Programming, thereby identifying and overcoming some methodological and logical inconsistencies which may exist in the current toxicological testing. By illustrating our methods for two simple but readily generalisable examples we show how so-called integrated testing strategies, where information of different precisions from different sources is combined and where different initial test outcomes lead to different sets of future tests, can arise naturally as optimal policies.

A Sensitive and simple macrophage-based electrochemical biosensor for evaluating lipopolysaccharide cytotoxicity of pathogenic bacteria.

In this study, a sensitive and simple electrochemical murine macrophage (Ana-1) cell sensor has been developed for early detection of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) to evaluate the toxicity of pathogenic bacteria. Magnetic glassy carbon electrode (MGCE), which possesses excellent reproducibility and regeneration qualities, was modified with a nanocomposite to improve electrochemical signals and enhance the sensitivity. The synthesized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were internalized into murine macrophages, which completed the immobilization of macrophages onto the modified electrode for evaluating the cytotoxicity of LPS by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The MNPs facilitated reusability of the proposed sensor by allowing removal of the magnetic core from the electrode. Our results indicated that LPS caused a marked decrease in electrochemical impedance in a dose-dependent manner in range of 1-5µg/mL. By SEM, we found that microvilli on the plasma membrane became scarce and the membrane became smooth on cells incubated with LPS, which lessens the absorption of cells to reduce the impedance. And biological assay indicated that EIS patterns were correlated with the calcium concentration in cells, and suggested that [Ca(2+)]i production increased in cells incubated with LPS and its mobilization altered electrochemical signals. Compared with conventional methods, this electrochemical test is inexpensive, highly sensitive, and has a quick response, and thus provides a new avenue for evaluating the cytotoxicity of pathogens.

Developmental neurotoxicity test guidelines: problems and perspectives.

Epidemiologic evidence has demonstrated associations between early life exposure to industrial chemicals and the occurrence of disease states, including cognitive and behavioral abnormalities, in children. The developing brain in the fetal and infantile periods is extremely vulnerable to chemicals because the blood-brain barrier is not completely formed during these periods. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) test guideline, TG426, updated in 2007, comprises in vivo behavioral observational tests and other tests intended to assess DNT induced by exposure to industrial chemicals. These chemicals may enter the market without having been subjected to DNT testing, as DNT test data is not mandated by law at the time of chemical registration. In addition, proprietary rights have led to problems concerning the non-disclosure of industrial chemical toxicity test data, including DNT test data. To overcome the disadvantages of high-cost and low time efficiency of in vivo DNT tests, in vitro or in silico tests are the proposed alternatives, but it is unlikely that the results of such tests would reflect changes in higher brain functions. Accordingly, the current DNT test guidelines need to be revised to avoid overlooking or neglecting the occurrence of DNT induced by exposure to low doses of chemicals. This review also proposes the introduction of novel in vivo DNT testing methods in light of a cost-performance analysis.

Predicting the future: opportunities and challenges for the chemical industry to apply 21st-century toxicity testing.

Interest in applying 21st-century toxicity testing tools for safety assessment of industrial chemicals is growing. Whereas conventional toxicology uses mainly animal-based, descriptive methods, a paradigm shift is emerging in which computational approaches, systems biology, high-throughput in vitro toxicity assays, and high-throughput exposure assessments are beginning to be applied to mechanism-based risk assessments in a time- and resource-efficient fashion. Here we describe recent advances in predictive safety assessment, with a focus on their strategic application to meet the changing demands of the chemical industry and its stakeholders. The opportunities to apply these new approaches is extensive and include screening of new chemicals, informing the design of safer and more sustainable chemical alternatives, filling information gaps on data-poor chemicals already in commerce, strengthening read-across methodology for categories of chemicals sharing similar modes of action, and optimizing the design of reduced-risk product formulations. Finally, we discuss how these predictive approaches dovetail with in vivo integrated testing strategies within repeated-dose regulatory toxicity studies, which are in line with 3Rs principles to refine, reduce, and replace animal testing. Strategic application of these tools is the foundation for informed and efficient safety assessment testing strategies that can be applied at all stages of the product-development process.

Establishment of toxicity thresholds in subpopulations of coelomocytes (amoebocytes vs. eleocytes) of Eisenia fetida exposed in vitro to a variety of metals: implications for biomarker measurements.

Coelomocytes comprise the immune system of earthworms and due to their sensitivity responding to a wide range of pollutants have been widely used as target cells in soil ecotoxicology. Recently, in vitro assays with primary cultures of coelomocytes based in the neutral red uptake (NRU) assay have been developed as promising tools for toxicity assessment chemical in a reproducible and cost-effective manner. However, NRU showed a bimodal dose-response curve previously described after in vivo and in vitro exposure of earthworm coelomocytes to pollutants. This response could be related with alterations in the relative proportion of coelomocyte subpopulations, amoebocytes and eleocytes. Thus, the aims of the present work were, first, to establish the toxicity thresholds that could be governed by different cell-specific sensitivities of coelomocytes subpopulations against a series of metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni), and second to understand the implication that coelomocyte population dynamics (eleocytes vs. amoebocytes) after exposure to pollutants can have on the viability of coelomocytes (measured by NRU assay) as biomarker of general stress in soil health assessment. Complementarily flow cytometric analyses were applied to obtain correlative information about single cells (amoebocytes and eleocytes) in terms of size and complexity, changes in their relative proportion and mortality rates. The results indicated a clear difference in sensitivity of eleocytes and amoebocytes against metal exposure, being eleocytes more sensitive. The bimodal dose-response curve of NRU after in vitro exposure of primary cultures of coelomocytes to metals revealed an initial mortality of eleocytes (decreased NRU), followed by an increased complexity of amoebocytes (enhanced phagocytosis) and massive mortality of eleocytes (increased NRU), to give raise to a massive mortality of amoebocytes (decrease NRU). A synergistic effect on NRU was exerted by the exposure to high Cu concentrations and acidic pH (elicited by the metal itself), whereas the effects on NRU produced after exposure to Cd, Ni and Pb were due solely to the presence of metals, being the acidification of culture medium meaningless.

A tutorial for analysing the cost-effectiveness of alternative methods for assessing chemical toxicity: the case of acute oral toxicity prediction.

Compared with traditional animal methods for toxicity testing, in vitro and in silico methods are widely considered to permit a more cost-effective assessment of chemicals. However, how to assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative methods has remained unclear. This paper offers a user-oriented tutorial for applying cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) to alternative (non-animal) methods. The purpose is to illustrate how CEA facilitates the identification of the alternative method, or the combination of methods, that offers the highest information gain per unit of cost. We illustrate how information gains and costs of single methods and method combinations can be assessed. By using acute oral toxicity as an example, we apply CEA to a set of four in silico methods (ToxSuite, TOPKAT, TEST, ADMET Predictor), one in vitro method (the 3T3 Neutral Red Uptake cytotoxicity assay), and various combinations of these methods. Our results underline that in silico tools are more cost-effective than the in vitro test. Battery combinations of alternative methods, however, do not necessarily outperform single methods, because additional information gains from the battery are easily outweighed by additional costs.

In situ electrochemical assessment of cytotoxicity of chlorophenols in MCF-7 and HeLa cells.

An in situ electrochemical method was used to assess the cytotoxicity of chlorophenols using human breast cancer (MCF-7) and cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells as models. On treatment with different chlorophenols, the electrochemical responses of the selected cells, resulting from the oxidation of guanine and xanthine in the cytoplasm, indicated the cell viability. In addition, the in situ in vitro electrochemical method was further compared with the traditional MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assays. Although similar cytotoxicity data were obtained from both methods, the effective concentrations of chlorophenols that inhibited 50% cell growth (EC50 values) from the electrochemical method were only slightly lower than those from the MTT assay. These results indicate that the in situ in vitro electrochemical method paves a simple, rapid, strongly responsive, and label-free way to the cytotoxicity assessment of different chlorophenol pollutants.

Safety evaluations under the proposed US Safe Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Act of 2013: animal use and cost estimates.

The proposed Safe Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Act of 2013 calls for a new evaluation program for cosmetic ingredients in the US, with the new assessments initially dependent on expanded animal testing. This paper considers possible testing scenarios under the proposed Act and estimates the number of test animals and cost under each scenario. It focuses on the impact for the first 10 years of testing, the period of greatest impact on animals and costs. The analysis suggests the first 10 years of testing under the Act could evaluate, at most, about 50% of ingredients used in cosmetics. Testing during this period would cost about $ 1.7-$ 9 billion and 1-11.5 million animals. By test year 10, alternative, high-throughput test methods under development are expected to be available, replacing animal testing and allowing rapid evaluation of all ingredients. Given the high cost in dollars and animal lives of the first 10 years for only about half of ingredients, a better choice may be to accelerate development of high-throughput methods. This would allow evaluation of 100% of cosmetic ingredients before year 10 at lower cost and without animal testing.

Reducing attrition in drug development: smart loading preclinical safety assessment.

Entry into the crucial preclinical good laboratory practice (GLP) stage of toxicology testing triggers significant R&D investment yet >20% of AstraZeneca's potential new medicines have been stopped for safety reasons in this GLP phase alone. How could we avoid at least some of these costly failures? An analysis of historical toxicities that caused stopping ('stopping toxicities') showed that >50% were attributable to target organ toxicities emerging within 2 weeks of repeat dosing or to acute cardiovascular risks. By frontloading 2-week repeat-dose toxicity studies and a comprehensive assessment of cardiovascular safety, we anticipate a potential 50% reduction in attrition in the GLP phase. This will reduce animal use overall, save significant R&D costs and improve drug pipeline quality.

In vitro-in vivo extrapolation of drug-induced proarrhythmia predictions at the population level.

Drug cardiotoxicity is a serious issue for patients, regulators, pharmaceutical companies and health service payers because they are all affected by its consequences. Despite the wide range of data they generate, existing approaches for cardiac safety testing might not be adequate and sufficiently cost-effective, probably as a result of the complexity of the problem. For this reason, translational tools (based on biophysically detailed, mathematical models) allowing for in vitro-in vivo extrapolation are gaining increasing interest. This current review describes approaches that can be used for cardiac safety assessment at the population level, by accounting for various sources of variability including kinetics of the compound of interest.