Protein mass spectrometry detects multiple bloodmeals for enhanced Chagas disease vector ecology.

Chagas disease, a neglected tropical disease endemic in Latin America, is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and is responsible for significant health impacts, especially in rural communities. The parasite is transmitted by insect vectors in the Triatominae subfamily and due to lack of vaccines and limited treatment options, vector control is the main way of controlling the disease. Knowing what vectors are feeding on directly enhances our understanding of the ecology and biology of the different vector species and can potentially aid in engaging communities in active disease control, a concept known as Ecohealth management. We evaluated bloodmeals in rural community, house-caught insect vectors previously evaluated for bloodmeals via DNA analysis as part of a larger collaborative project from three countries in Central America, including Guatemala. In addition to identifying bloodmeals in 100% of all samples using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) (n = 50), strikingly for 53% of these samples there was no evidence of a recent bloodmeal by DNA-PCR. As individual vectors often feed on multiple sources, we developed an enhanced detection pipeline, and showed the ability to quantify a bloodmeal using stable-isotope-containing synthetic references peptides, a first step in further exploration of species-specific bloodmeal composition. Furthermore, we show that a lower resolution mass spectrometer is sufficient to correctly identify taxa from bloodmeals, an important and strong attribute of our LC-MS/MS-based method, opening the door to using proteomics in countries where Chagas disease is endemic.

Variability of defensin genes from a Mexican endemic Triatominae: Triatoma (Meccus) pallidipennis (Hemiptera: Reduviidae).

Chagas disease remains a serious health problem for countries where the most common mode of transmission is infection contracted from the feces of a Triatominae insect vector. In México, 32 species of Triatoma have been identified; amongst them, Triatoma (Meccus) pallidipennis is an endemic species reported to have high percentages of infection with T. cruzi Defensins, cysteine-rich cationic peptides, are a family of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs); the synthesis of these molecules is crucial for insect's immune defense. In the present study, the genes encoding defensins in T. pallidipennis were sequenced with the purpose of identifying the variability of these genes in a Mexican vector of T. cruzi We found 12 different genes encoding three mature peptides, all of which had the typical folding of a functional insect defensin. In this work two Defensins type 1 and one type 4 were identified. The pro-peptide domain was highly variable and the mature peptide was not. This is the first report focus on variability of defensins from an epidemiologically important Triatoma in Mexico.

Triatoma infestans relies on salivary lysophosphatidylcholine to enhance Trypanosoma cruzi transmission.

Triatoma infestans is a mandatory haematophagous vector of Chagas disease in Brazil. Despite a large number of studies on the anti-haemostatic molecules present in its saliva, the role of its salivary components on parasite transmission is poorly understood. Here, we show that the bioactive lipid molecule, lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), is present in the salivary gland of T. infestans. We characterized the lipid profiles of each unit of the T. infestans salivary gland. We noticed that LPC is present in the three units of the salivary gland and that the insect feeding state does not influence its proportion. T. infestans saliva and LPC can enhance T. cruzi transmission to mice by dramatically altering the profile of inflammatory cells at the site of inoculation on mouse skin, facilitating the transmission of T. cruzi to the vertebrate host. Consequently, the mortality curves of either saliva- or LPC-injected mice display significant higher mortality rates than the control. Altogether, these results implicate LPC as one of key salivary molecule involved in Chagas disease transmission.

Sympatry influence in the interaction of Trypanosoma cruzi with triatomine.

INTRODUCTION: Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, is widely distributed in nature, circulating between triatomine bugs and sylvatic mammals, and has large genetic diversity. Both the vector species and the genetic lineages of T. cruzi present a varied geographical distribution. This study aimed to verify the influence of sympatry in the interaction of T. cruzi with triatomines. Methods: The behavior of the strains PR2256 (T. cruzi II) and AM14 (T. cruzi IV) was studied in Triatoma sordida (TS) and Rhodnius robustus (RR). Eleven fifth-stage nymphs were fed by artificial xenodiagnosis with 5.6 × 103 blood trypomastigotes/0.1mL of each T. cruzi strain. Every 20 days, their excreta were examined for up to 100 days, and every 30 days, the intestinal content was examined for up to 120 days, by parasitological (fresh examination and differential count with Giemsa-stained smears) and molecular (PCR) methods. Rates of infectivity, metacyclogenesis and mortality, and mean number of parasites per insect and of excreted parasites were determined. RESULTS: Sympatric groups RR+AM14 and TS+PR2256 showed higher values of the four parameters, except for mortality rate, which was higher (27.3%) in the TS+AM14 group. General infectivity was 72.7%, which was mainly proven by PCR, showing the following decreasing order: RR+AM14 (100%), TS+PR2256 (81.8%), RR+PR2256 (72.7%) and TS+AM14 (36.4%). CONCLUSIONS: Our working hypothesis was confirmed once higher infectivity and vector capacity (flagellate production and elimination of infective metacyclic forms) were recorded in the groups that contained sympatric T. cruzi lineages and triatomine species.

Sympatry influence in the interaction of Trypanosoma cruzi with triatomine

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, is widely distributed in nature, circulating between triatomine bugs and sylvatic mammals, and has large genetic diversity. Both the vector species and the genetic lineages of T. cruzi present a varied geographical distribution. This study aimed to verify the influence of sympatry in the interaction of T. cruzi with triatomines. Methods: The behavior of the strains PR2256 (T. cruzi II) and AM14 (T. cruzi IV) was studied in Triatoma sordida (TS) and Rhodnius robustus (RR). Eleven fifth-stage nymphs were fed by artificial xenodiagnosis with 5.6 × 103 blood trypomastigotes/0.1mL of each T. cruzi strain. Every 20 days, their excreta were examined for up to 100 days, and every 30 days, the intestinal content was examined for up to 120 days, by parasitological (fresh examination and differential count with Giemsa-stained smears) and molecular (PCR) methods. Rates of infectivity, metacyclogenesis and mortality, and mean number of parasites per insect and of excreted parasites were determined. RESULTS: Sympatric groups RR+AM14 and TS+PR2256 showed higher values of the four parameters, except for mortality rate, which was higher (27.3%) in the TS+AM14 group. General infectivity was 72.7%, which was mainly proven by PCR, showing the following decreasing order: RR+AM14 (100%), TS+PR2256 (81.8%), RR+PR2256 (72.7%) and TS+AM14 (36.4%). CONCLUSIONS: Our working hypothesis was confirmed once higher infectivity and vector capacity (flagellate production and elimination of infective metacyclic forms) were recorded in the groups that contained sympatric T. cruzi lineages and triatomine species.

Caracterização e distribuição da resistência a deltametrina de populações silvestres e domésticas de Triatoma infestans da Bolívia

A persistência do Triatoma infestans e a transmissão contínua de Trypanosoma cruzinos Vales Inter-Andinos e no Grande Chaco da Bolívia são de grande importância. Na última década, focos silvestres desta espécie foram descritos em amplas áreas, na qual o alcance das estratégias de controle do vetor é limitado, sendo frequentes os relatos de resistência do T. infestans a inseticidas, que incluem populações silvestres e domésticas. O presente estudo teve como objetivo caracterizar o perfil de suscetibilidade (1) e hereditariedade (2) de populações silvestres e domésticas de T. infestans da Bolívia à deltametrina, bem como descrever a área de distribuição das populações resistentes a diferentes piretróides na América do Sul (3). 1) Foram avaliadas nove populações de T. infestans silvestres e domésticas do Grande Chaco e dos Vales Inter-Andinos da Bolívia. Três amostras silvestres de T. infestans(dark morph) do Chaco (Santa Cruz) foram suscetíveis a deltametrina (RR50 de <2), com 100% de mortalidade em resposta a dose diagnóstica (DD). A população doméstica de Villa Montes do Grande Chaco (Tarija) apresentou altos níveis de resistência (RR50 = 129,12 e 0% DD).

Do mesmo modo, as populações domésticas dos Vales Inter-Andinos (Cochabamba) apresentaram RR50 > 9, sendo as populações silvestres menos suscetíveis, com RR50 >5 do que SRL. 2) Cruzamentos experimentais foram realizados entre uma colônia suscetível RR50=0,62 (S), uma resistente RR50=129,12 (R) e com susceptibilidade reduzida RR50=5,04 (SR), em ambas as direções (♀x♂ e ♂x♀). O modo de herança do caráter resistente foi determinado pelo grau de dominância (DO) e dominância efetiva (DML). A hereditariedade (h2) foi estimada a partir da colônia R selecionada durante duas gerações, utilizando a dose diagnóstica (10 ng.i.a./ninfa).

O resultado para DO e DML (<1) indica que a resistência é um caráter de dominância incompleta e de herança autossômica. A Dose Letal 50% (DL50) para F1 de ♀Sx♂R e ♂Sx♀R foi de 0,74 e 3,97 respectivamente, revelando efeito de diluição da resistência inicialmente observada. Por outro lado, foi observado um incremento da RR50 de 2,25 vezes (F1) e 26,83 vezes (F2) na população selecionada em comparação com a colônia parental. 3) Foi compilado um total de 24 artigos que avaliaram a suscetibilidade a diferentes piretróides em 222 populações de T. infestans coletadas no campo dos países de Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil e Paraguai. A relação entre resistência aos inseticidas (avaliada por critérios diferentes) e diferentes variáveis ambientais foi estudada utilizando modelo linear generalizado. A DL50 mostrou uma forte relação linear com a RR50. Análise estatística descritiva demonstrou que a distribuição de frequência da Log (DL50) é bimodal, sugerindo a existência de dois grupos estatísticos (um grupo de menor e outro com maior Log (DL50). Finalmente, o modelo significativo incluindo 5 variáveis ambientais referentes a temperatura e precipitação, revelou concentração das populações com altas DL50 sobre a região identificada como o centro de dispersão de T. infestans. Os dados obtidos neste estudo contribuem com informações sobre a variabilidade do perfil de resistência, ocorrência e distribuição de populações resistentes na Bolívia

Eco-bio-social research on community-based approaches for Chagas disease vector control in Latin America.

This article provides an overview of three research projects which designed and implemented innovative interventions for Chagas disease vector control in Bolivia, Guatemala and Mexico. The research initiative was based on sound principles of community-based ecosystem management (ecohealth), integrated vector management, and interdisciplinary analysis. The initial situational analysis achieved a better understanding of ecological, biological and social determinants of domestic infestation. The key factors identified included: housing quality; type of peridomestic habitats; presence and abundance of domestic dogs, chickens and synanthropic rodents; proximity to public lights; location in the periphery of the village. In Bolivia, plastering of mud walls with appropriate local materials and regular cleaning of beds and of clothes next to the walls, substantially decreased domestic infestation and abundance of the insect vector Triatoma infestans. The Guatemalan project revealed close links between house infestation by rodents and Triatoma dimidiata, and vector infection with Trypanosoma cruzi. A novel community-operated rodent control program significantly reduced rodent infestation and bug infection. In Mexico, large-scale implementation of window screens translated into promising reductions in domestic infestation. A multi-pronged approach including community mobilisation and empowerment, intersectoral cooperation and adhesion to integrated vector management principles may be the key to sustainable vector and disease control in the affected regions.

House-level risk factors for Triatoma dimidiata infestation in Colombia.

In Colombia, the main vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, are Rhodnius prolixus and Triatoma dimidiata. T. dimidiata is present in the east region of Colombia as domestic, peridomestic, and sylvatic populations, resulting in difficulties for its control. A cost-effective way to prioritize houses for treatment is to stratify houses based on risk factors. In this study, risk factors were evaluated for potential associations with domicile infestation of T. dimidiata. There was an increased likelihood of domestic infestation associated with the presence of mixed roofs (odds ratio [OR] = 36.14, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 12.21-106.97), cats (OR = 3.94, 95% CI = 1.36-11.38), rock piles (OR = 5.28, 95% CI = 1.64-16.98), and bushes with height above 10 m (OR = 11.21, 95% CI = 2.08-60.45). These factors could be used to target surveillance and control of T. dimidiata to houses with an increased risk of being infested.

Aspectos biológicos e potencial vetorial de Triatoma sherlocki Papa, Jurberg, Carcavallo, Cerqueira e Barata, 2002 (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae) em condições de laboratório / Biological aspects and vectorial potential of triatoma sherlocki Papa, Jurberg, Carcavallo, Cerqueira & Barata, 2002 (hemiptera: reduviidae: triatominae) in laboratory conditions

No presente estudo avaliaram-se diferentes parâmetros biológicos de T. sherlocki para inferir sua capacidade vetorial. Para isso, foram efetuadas coletas no ambiente silvestre e domiciliar em 2009, quando foi feita a pesquisa para presença de T. cruzi-like, e em 2010, para o estabelecimento de colônias mantidas em condições controladas de temperatura (24,6 ± 1,3 ºC) e umidade relativa (71,6 porcento ± 6,3) (não controlada). Tais colônias deram suporte aos estudos do ciclo biológico, do comportamento alimentar e de defecação e da resistência ao jejum. A taxa de infecção natural foi obtida pelo exame microscópico de fezes dos triatomíneos. Para o estudo do ciclo biológico e do comportamento alimentar e de defecação, foram selecionados aleatoriamente 123 ovos a partir de trinta casais mantidos juntos. Assim, acompanhou-se o desenvolvimento de ovo-adulto e o seu comportamento de alimentação e de defecação após a alimentação até 10 min. Os insetos foram alimentados semanalmente em camundongos Mus musculus. A resistência ao jejum foi estudada através da seleção aleatória de um grupo de 50 ovos e 50 ninfas de 2º a 5º estádio, perfazendo um total de 350 espécimes, os quais foram alimentados semanalmente em camundongos e observados diariamente para registrar a eclosão ou ecdise...

The insects were fed weekly on mice Mus musculus. The resistance to starvation was studied by randomlyselecting a group of 50 eggs and 50 nymphs of 2nd to 5th instar, which were fed weekly on mice and observed daily to record hatching or moulting. Thereafter, each triatomine wasobserved individually for the record of the period of resistance to starvation unto death. During field sampling, 471 specimens were collected, 170 in 2009 and 301 in 2010. Of the 170 specimens collected in 2009, 145 were examined for the presence of T. cruzi-like, ofwhich 20 percent were positive. Regarding the biological cycle, T. sherlocki showed averagedevelopment time from egg to adult of 325.0 ± 40.0 days, indicating that this species has one generation per year. The number of blood meal ranged from 1 to 11 depending on the instar ofdevelopment. This feature increases the vector-host contact, increasing the likelihood of acquisition or transmission of T. cruzi. The overall mortality rate was low (6.5 percent) compared toother species of triatomines, showing that T. sherlocki has well adapted to laboratory conditions. Among the main results obtained in the study of feeding behavior and defecation highlights the short time interval between feeding and defecation of the early nymphal instarof T. sherlocki, average time of 1.38 minutes for the 1st instar and 2.15 minutes for the 2nd instar, and the 63.2 percent (n = 114) of the 1st nymphal instar and 56.7 percent (n = 60) of the 2nd nymphal instar defecated until 1 minute after the 1st and 2nd feeds, respectively. The nymphs of remaining instars took longer to defecate, but had an average time of defecation afterfeeding up to 10 min lower to 4.00 min...

Differential expression of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase isoforms in flight muscles of the Chagas disease vector Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera, Reduviidae).

Flight muscles of Triatoma infestans have two glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) isoforms: GPDH-1 is involved in flight metabolism and GPDH-2 provides lipid precursors. Total GPDH activity was greater in the natural population and almost only due to GPDH-1. Different expression and activity observed between GPDH isoforms in the natural population and the first laboratory generation was not detected in the second laboratory generation. This pattern may be caused by gradual adaptation to laboratory nutritional conditions. During development, the expression of GPDH-2 increased with a longer time of intake, which would imply an increment in lipid biosynthesis. The GPDH-1 transcript predominated with respect to that of GPDH-2 in the lower nutritional condition, suggesting the necessity of insects to fly during this nutritional status. The transcriptional pattern showed a delay at 22°C. The isoforms activities and transcript patterns in flight muscles suggest transcriptional adaptation to metabolic requirements originated by alternative splicing.

Alterações ambientais e risco de re-emergência da doença de chagas na cidade do Salvador-BA: Uma abordagem da ecologia vetorial e epidemiológica / Environmental changes and the risk of re-emergence of Chagas disease in the city of Salvador-BA: An approach to vector ecology and epidemiology

A Doença de Chagas, causada pelo Trypanosoma cruzi, cujos principais vetores são hemípteros hematófagos conhecidos por “barbeiros”, constitui um grande problema de saúde pública afetando milhares de pessoas no Brasil. Na década de 1970, em pesquisas e serviço, na cidade do Salvador, BA, Brasil, foram capturados diversos triatomíneos, inclusive contaminados por T. cruzi, caracterizando assim o encontro destes animais como sendo um problema de longa data, no entanto, a problemática dos anos 70 foi controlada por se tratarem de espécies domiciliares, a exemplo do Panstrongylus megistus. Atualmente, observamos o crescente encontro do Triatoma tibiamaculata em residências próximas a remanescentes florestais da cidade do Salvador. Desde 2007, foram capturados no ambiente domiciliar mais de 900 exemplares do Triatoma tibiamaculata, até agora com uma taxa média de infecção de aproximadamente 50%, quando analisadas as fezes à fresco. O padrão de encontro destes triatomíneos no ambiente peri e intadomiciliar indica que existe o risco de peridomiciliação da espécie em alguns locais. Este fato pode estar sendo influenciado pela antropização e destruição dos fragmentos de mata da região os quais constituem seu refúgio natural. Tipagens oleculares das cepas de T. cruzi isoladas dos triatomíneos demonstraram que existem mais que um tipo circulante, inclusive com co-infecção de cepas no mesmo triatomíneo (T. cruzi I=47%; T. cruzi II=39%, infecção múltipla=14%; N=212. Através de técnicas moleculares foram em 212 amostras, identificamos as fontes alimentares deste triatomíneo, tendo sido demosntrado que o alimento preferencial dentre os insetos testados foram aves (45%), marsupial (35%), ruminantes (5%) e roedores (5%); O Odds Ratio (OR) dos triatomíneos que stavam alimentados com sangue de marsupial e que se apresentarem infectados foi de OR=1.95 (IC=1.22-3.11). Para aqueles alimentados com sangue de aves foi observado um efeito protetor contra a infecção, OR=0.43(IC=0.30-0.73). Apesar dos resultados preliminares apontarem para o status de espécie silvestre em processo de peridomiciliação e não alimentação com sangue humano, a simples ocorrência de triatomíneos infectados no domicílio humano levanta a hipótese de risco de transmissão do mal de Chagas na cidade de Salvador por esta espécie.

Feeding performance of Triatoma brasiliensis (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) on habitual hosts: Thrichomys laurentius (Rodentia: Echimyidae) and humans.

Triatoma brasiliensis is an important vector of Trypanosoma cruzi in the semiarid zones of Northeastern Brazil where it is commonly found in human dwellings, peridomiciliary areas, and the wild environments. To better understand features that may be influencing the interaction of T. brasiliensis with its hosts, in the present work we compared the feeding performance of sylvatic and domestic populations of T. brasiliensis on humans and on Thrichomys laurentius, a wild rodent found in the natural ecotopes of T. brasiliensis. The analyses were performed using the electronic monitoring of the cibarial pump. The blood sources considerably affected the feeding parameters. Insects fed on T. laurentius had lower ingestion rate, gained less weight, had longer interruption time, remained less time in contact with the host, and had the contractions of the pump in a lower frequency during the feeding process in comparison to insects fed on humans. These results indicate that humans are better blood sources for T. brasiliensis than T. laurentius. The fact that there was no difference between the feeding performance of sylvatic and domestic insects suggests that feeding is not a barrier for the domiciliation. Together, these findings suggest that shelter and faster blood meals are qualities of human dwellings that facilitate the domiciliation of T. brasiliensis.

Molecular phylogeography of the Chagas' disease vector Triatoma infestans in Argentina.

Triatoma infestans is the main vector of Chagas' disease in South America between latitudes 10°S and 46°S. A multilocus microsatellite data set of 836 individuals from 27 populations of T. infestans, from all its range of distribution in Argentina, was analyzed. Our results favor the hypothesis of two independent migration events of colonization in Argentina and secondary contacts. The majority of the populations of the western provinces of Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan and the west of Cordoba province, had almost no shared ancestry with the rest of the populations analyzed. Probably those populations, belonging to localities close to the Andean region, could have been established by the dispersal line of T. infestans that would have arrived to Argentina through the Andes, whereas most of the rest of the populations analyzed may have derived from the dispersal line of T. infestans in non-Andean lowlands. Among them, those from the provinces of Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero and Santa Fe shared different percentages of ancestry and presented lower degree of genetic differentiation. The migratory movement linked to regional economies and possibly associated with passive dispersal, would allow a higher genetic exchange among these populations of T. infestans. This study, using microsatellite markers, provides a new approach for evaluating the validity of the different hypotheses concerning the evolutionary history of this species. Two major lineages of T. infestans, an Andean and non-Andean, are suggested.

Modelling congenital transmission of Chagas' disease.

The successful elimination of vectorial and transfusional transmission of Chagas' disease from some countries is a result of the reduction of domestic density of the primary vector Triatoma infestans, of almost 100% of coverage in blood serological selection and to the fact that the basic reproductive number of Chagas' disease is very close to one (1.25). Therefore, congenital transmission is currently the only way of acquiring Chagas' Disease in such regions. In this paper we propose a model of congenital transmission of Chagas' disease. Its aim is to provide an estimation of the time period it will take to eliminate this form of transmission in regions where vetorial transmission was reduced to close to zero, like in Brazil.

Antibody responses of domestic animals to salivary antigens of Triatomainfestans as biomarkers for low-level infestation of triatomines.

Hematophagous arthropods such as Triatoma infestans, the vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, elicit host-immune responses during feeding. Characterization of antibody responses to salivary antigens offers the potential to develop immunologically based monitoring techniques for exposure to re-emergent triatomine bug populations in peridomestic animals. IgG-antibody responses to the salivary antigens of T.infestans have been detected in chickens as soon as 2 days after the first exposure to five adult bugs. Chickens and guinea pigs regularly exposed to this number of triatomines showed a significantly lower anti-saliva antibody titre than animals exposed to 25 adults and fifth instars of four different T.infestans strains originating from Bolivia and from Northern Chile. Highly immunogenic salivary antigens of 14 and 21kDa were recognised by all chicken sera and of 79kDa by all guinea pig sera. Cross-reactivity studies using saliva or salivary gland extracts from different hematophagous species, e.g. different triatomines, bed bugs, mosquitoes, sand flies and ticks, as well as chicken sera exposed to triatomines and mosquitoes, demonstrated that the 14 and 21kDa salivary antigens were only found in triatomines. Sera from peridomestic chickens and guinea pigs in sites of known T.infestans challenge in Bolivia also recognised the 14 and 21kDa antigens. These represent promising epidemiological markers for the detection of small numbers of feeding bugs and hence may be a new tool for vector surveillance in Chagas disease control programs.

La enfermedad de chagas en la República Argentina / Chagas disease in Argentina

Revisões históricas aos avanços científicos para o controle da doença, o Simpósio Internacional Comemorativo do Centenário da Descoberta da Doença de Chagas (1909-2009).

Triatominos (Reduviidae: Triatominae) en un foco de enfermedad de Chagas en Talaigua Nuevo (Bolívar, Colombia) / Triatomines (Reduviidae: Triatominae) in a Chagas disease focus in Talaigua Nuevo (Bolívar, Colombia)

Introducción. Se describen las características e importancia epidemiológica de los triatominospresentes en un foco de enfermedad de Chagas en el municipio de Talaigua Nuevo, departamento de Bolívar. Objetivo. Determinar y correlacionar características ecológicas de los triatominos presentes en un foco de Chagas en el municipio de Talaigua Nuevo, Bolívar. Materiales y métodos. La captura de los triatominos se realizó en 300 domicilios del casco urbano en los que se revisaron el intra y peridomicilio, así como ambientes extradomésticos (palmas de vino y cúmulos de madera y leña). Resultados. Se capturaron 103 triatominos pertenecientes a cuatro especies: Triatoma maculata, Eratyrus cuspidatus, Panstrongylus geniculatus y Rhodnius prolixus. T. maculata, fue la especie predominante (92,3 por ciento). El 93 por ciento de los triatominos fueron capturados en ambientes intradomiciliarios. Conclusión. Se reporta por primera vez en Bolívar la captura de individuos de T. maculata infectados naturalmente con Trypanosoma sp. Se amplía la distribución geográfica de P. geniculatus y R. prolixus. El análisis de correspondencias múltiples no encontró ninguna relación significativa entre las características físicas de las viviendas y la presencia de triatominos dentro de ellas

Can wild Triatoma infestans foci in Bolivia jeopardize Chagas disease control efforts?

The expected success of Chagas disease control programs in the Southern Cone countries relied on the assumption that Triatoma infestans, the main domestic vector, did not maintain silvatic foci except in the Cochabamba valley in Bolivia. Recent fieldwork revealed that wild populations of this vector are much more widespread throughout Bolivia than previously thought. Therefore, it is important to find out whether these silvatic populations could jeopardize control efforts in Bolivia, and to investigate their possible occurrence in neighboring regions of Paraguay and Argentina.

Triatoma ryckmani (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) in the epiphyte Tillandsia xerographica (Bromeliaceae) in the semiarid region of Guatemala.

For the first time, the reduviid bug Triatoma ryckmani Zeledón and Ponce (Hemiptera; Reduviidae) was recorded to inhabit the epiphyte Tillandsia xerographica Rohweder (Bromeliaceae) in the semiarid region of Guatemala. These bromeliads grow mainly in drought-resistant trees with rough bark such as Pereskia lychnidiflora (Cactaceae). In our study site, we investigated 30 T. xerographica, and 53 specimens of T. ryckmani were found. Most T. ryckmani (68.5%) were unfed. Ants (Formicidae) were the predominant (92.2%) insect taxon in T. xerographica. Other insects such as Blattidae (3.0%), Reduviidae (T. ryckmani: 2.5%), Blaberidae (2.2%), Gryllidae (0.1%), and Acrididae (0.1%) were recorded in the bromeliads. T. xerographica is illegally commercialized without previous inspection. This may cause accidental introduction of T. ryckmani to houses and to other countries.

Entomopathogenic effect of Aspergillus giganteus and Penicillium corylophilum on two triatomine vectors of Chagas disease.

Two strains, Penicillium corylophilum and Aspergillus giganteus, of the most frequent species found in a survey of triatomines, were used for bioassays in the second and fourth nymphs stage of Triatoma infestans and Panstrongylus megistus. Two procedures, bite and pulverization, were used and compared. A. giganteus was most effective, causing mortality in at least 50% of the nymphs of the two species tested with exception of the nymphs of the fourth stage of P. megistus. Variation in entomopathogenic capacity of the fungal species were observed in the experiments. The two procedures used proved effective.