Considerations for Development of Exposure Limits for Chemicals Encountered During Aircraft Operation.

BACKGROUND: Military aircrews' health status is critical to their mission readiness, as they perform physically and cognitively demanding tasks in nontraditional work environments. Research Objectives: Our objective is to develop a broad operational risk assessment framework and demonstrate its applicability to health risks to aircrews because of airborne chemical exposure, considering stressors such as heat and exertion. METHODS: Extrapolation of generic exposure standards to military aviation-specific conditions can include computation of risk-relevant internal dosimetry estimates by incorporating changes in breathing patterns and blood flow distribution because of aspects of the in-flight environment. We provide an example of the effects of exertion on peak blood concentrations of 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene computed using a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model. RESULTS: Existing published collections on the effects of flight-related stressors on breathing patterns and blood flow address only a limited number of stressors. Although data exist that can be used to develop operational exposure limits specific to military aircrew activities, efforts to integrate this information in specific chemical assessments have been limited. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to develop operational exposure limits would benefit from guidance on how to make use of existing assessments and expanded databases of the impact of environmental stressors on adult human physiology.

The Environmental Protection Agency's Use of Community Involvement to Engage Communities at Superfund Sites.

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program was established to identify, assess and clean up the nation's worst hazardous waste sites to protect human health and the environment. Community involvement is an important part of the Superfund program for at least three reasons. First, involving communities in decision making at Superfund sites is a statutory requirement. Second, community involvement is important so that clean up decisions will support reuse in the surrounding community. Third, because even after cleanup many sites have residual contamination that warrants administrative and legal controls to protect health and the environment, community members should understand these controls to both help protect community members and any limitations on site reuse. Community feedback informs both proposed actions and local reuse decisions. While the EPA recognizes that the agency performs many activities that are helpful to support community involvement, there are areas in need of improvement and further research would be helpful for communities in the future.

Quantitative prediction of repeat dose toxicity values using GenRA.

Computational approaches have recently gained popularity in the field of read-across to automatically fill data-gaps for untested chemicals. Previously, we developed the generalized read-across (GenRA) tool, which utilizes in vitro bioactivity data in conjunction with chemical descriptor information to derive local validity domains to predict hazards observed in in vivo toxicity studies. Here, we modified GenRA to quantitatively predict point of departure (POD) values obtained from US EPA's Toxicity Reference Database (ToxRefDB) version 2.0. To evaluate GenRA predictions, we first aggregated oral Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Levels (LOAEL) for 1,014 chemicals by systemic, developmental, reproductive, and cholinesterase effects. The mean LOAEL values for each chemical were converted to log molar equivalents. Applying GenRA to all chemicals with a minimum Jaccard similarity threshold of 0.05 for Morgan fingerprints and a maximum of 10 nearest neighbors predicted systemic, developmental, reproductive, and cholinesterase inhibition min aggregated LOAEL values with R2 values of 0.23, 0.22, 0.14, and 0.43, respectively. However, when evaluating GenRA locally to clusters of structurally-similar chemicals (containing 2 to 362 chemicals), average R2 values for systemic, developmental, reproductive, and cholinesterase LOAEL predictions improved to 0.73, 0.66, 0.60 and 0.79, respectively. Our findings highlight the complexity of the chemical-toxicity landscape and the importance of identifying local domains where GenRA can be used most effectively for predicting PODs.

Ambient air pollution and in vitro fertilization treatment outcomes.

STUDY QUESTION: Is air pollution associated with IVF treatment outcomes in the USA? SUMMARY ANSWER: We did not find clear evidence of a meaningful association between reproductive outcomes and average daily concentrations of particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5) and ozone (O3). WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Maternal exposure to air pollution such as PM2.5, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide or O3 may increase risks for adverse perinatal outcomes. Findings from the few studies using data from IVF populations to investigate associations between specific pollutants and treatment outcomes are inconclusive. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE AND DURATION: Retrospective cohort study of 253 528 non-cancelled fresh, autologous IVF cycles including 230 243 fresh, autologous IVF cycles with a transfer of ≥1 embryo was performed between 2010 and 2012. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: We linked 2010-2012 National ART Surveillance System data for fresh, autologous IVF cycles with the ambient air pollution data generated using a Bayesian fusion model available through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Environmental Public Health Tracking Network. We calculated county-level average daily PM2.5 and O3 concentrations for three time periods: cycle start to oocyte retrieval (T1), oocyte retrieval to embryo transfer (T2) and embryo transfer +14 days (T3). Multivariable predicted marginal proportions from logistic and log-linear regression models were used to estimate adjusted risk ratios (aRR) and 95% CI for the association between reproductive outcomes (implantation rate, pregnancy and live birth) and interquartile increases in PM2.5 and O3. The multipollutant models were also adjusted for patients and treatment characteristics and accounted for clustering by clinic and county of residence. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: For all exposure periods, O3 was weakly positively associated with implantation (aRR 1.01, 95% CI 1.001-1.02 for T1; aRR 1.01, 95% CI 1.001-1.02 for T2 and aRR 1.01, 95% CI 1.001-1.02 for T3) and live birth (aRR 1.01, 95% CI 1.002-1.02 for T1; aRR 1.01, 95% CI 1.004-1.02 for T2 and aRR 1.02, 95% CI 1.004-1.03 for T3). PM2.5 was not associated with any of the reproductive outcomes assessed. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: The main limitation of this study is the use of aggregated air pollution data as proxies for individual exposure. The weak positive associations found in this study might be related to confounding by factors that we were unable to assess and may not reflect clinically meaningful differences. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: More research is needed to assess the impact of air pollution on reproductive function. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): None.

The 2011 National Wetland Condition Assessment: overview and an invitation.

The first National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) was conducted in 2011 by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and its federal and state partners, using a survey design that allowed inference of results to national and regional scales. Vegetation, algae, soil, water chemistry, and hydrologic data were collected at each of 1138 locations across the conterminous United States (US). Ecological condition was assessed in relation to a disturbance gradient anchored by least disturbed (reference) and most disturbed sites identified using chemical, physical, and biological disturbance indices based on site-level data. A vegetation multimetric index (VMMI) was developed as an indicator of condition, and included four metrics: a floristic quality assessment index, relative importance of native plants, number of disturbance-tolerant plant species, and relative cover of native monocots. Potential stressors to wetland condition were identified and incorporated into two indicators of vegetation alteration, four indicators of hydrologic alteration, a soil heavy metal index, and a nonnative plant indicator and were used to quantify national and regional stressor extent, and the associated relative and attributable risk. Approximately 48 ± 6% of the national wetland area was found to be in good condition and 32 ± 6% in poor condition as defined by the VMMI. Across the conterminous US, approximately 20% of wetland area had high or very high stressor levels related to nonnative plants. Vegetation removal, hardening, and ditching stressors had the greatest extent of wetland area with high stressor levels, affecting 23-27% of the wetland area in the NWCA sampled population. The results from the 2016 NWCA will build on those from the 2011 assessment and initiate the ability to report on trends in addition to status. The data and tools produced by the NWCA can be used by others to further our knowledge of wetlands in the conterminous US.

Quantifying the extent of human disturbance activities and anthropogenic stressors in wetlands across the conterminous United States: results from the National Wetland Condition Assessment.

In 2011, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducted the National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) as part of the National Aquatic Resource Survey (NARS) program to determine the condition of wetlands across the 48 contiguous states of the United States (US). Sites were selected using a generalized random tessellated stratified (GRTS) probability design. We quantified the types, extent, and magnitude of human activities as indicators of potential stress on a sample of 1138 wetland sites representing a target population of 251,546 km2 of wetlands in the US. We used field observations of the presence and proximity of more than 50 pre-determined types of human activity to define two types of indices that quantify human influences on wetlands. We grouped these observations into five types of human activity (classes) and summed them within and across these classes to define five metrics and an overall Human Disturbance Activity Index (HDAI). We calculated six Anthropogenic Stress Indices (ASIs) by summing human disturbance activity observations within stressor categories according to their expected effect on each of six aspects of wetland condition. Based on repeat-visit data, the precision of these metrics and indices was sufficient for regional and national assessments. Among the six categories of stress assessed nationally, the percentage of wetland area having ASI levels indicating high stress levels ranged from 10% due to filling/erosional activities to 27% due to vegetation removal activities. The proportion of wetland area with no signs of human disturbance activity (HDAI = 0) within a 140-m diameter area varied widely among the different wetland ecoregions/types we assessed. No visible human disturbance activity was evident in 70% of estuarine wetlands, but among non-estuarine wetlands, only 8% of the wetland area in the West, 15% of the Interior Plains, 22% of the Coastal Plains, and 36% of the Eastern Mountains and Upper Midwest lacked visible evidence of disturbance. The woody wetlands of the West were the most highly stressed reporting group, with more than 75% of their wetland area subject to high levels of ditching, hardening, and vegetation removal. The NWCA offers a unique opportunity to quantify the type, intensity, and extent of human activities in and around wetlands and to assess their likely stress on wetland ecological functions, physical integrity, and overall condition at regional and continental scales.

Applying adaptive management and lessons learned from national assessments to address logistical challenges in the National Wetland Condition Assessment.

The National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) is one of a series of probability-based National Aquatic Resource Surveys (NARS) conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to provide a comprehensive assessment of the condition of the Nation's waters. Randomized design and standardized training and protocols allow USEPA to analyze data that are nationally consistent and regionally relevant. Each NARS assessment was preceded by careful consideration of key logistical elements that included pre-survey planning, training, sampling logistics, and laboratory analysis. Numerous state, tribal, and contractor crews were supported across the country for each assessment; sampling and sample analyses were tracked from initiation; laboratory analyses were completed at USEPA, state, regional, and contract laboratories; and the data analyses and reporting were completed by USEPA-led workgroups, states, and contractors. The complexity and difficulty of each step offered unique challenges and provided lessons learned for each of the NARS assessments. Major logistical elements for implementing large scale assessments that are constrained by sampling period and number and duration of visits are covered in this paper. These elements include sample transport, equipment and supplies, sampling and sample tracking, information management regional technical expertise, and a sound field training program. This paper describes how lessons from previous assessments were applied to the NWCA and how new challenges faced in the NWCA were addressed and carried forward into future surveys.

Foreword to the USEPA's National Wetland Condition Assessment Topical Collection.

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Aquatic Resources Survey (NARS) is a 5-year ongoing cycle of nationwide aquatic resource surveys which provide a report card on the condition of our nation's waters. The surveys are performed using a randomized, statistically valid design and provide statistically robust data which are used to develop the reports. These reports assess how well existing pollution prevention programs are protecting those waters, and how to better target future protection efforts. This presentation will focus on the results and uses of the 2011 National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) outcomes. Some of the outcomes from the NWCA include (1) robust multi-metric indices used to evaluate condition across varying wetland types, streams, and ecoregions and (2) physical, chemical, and biological indicators of stress (risk factors) which identify the factors which contribute most to poor condition. (3) A wealth of quality-assured, statistically valid data which can be mined to pursue other questions within both regulatory and non-regulatory programs by providing a more robust look at wetland and stream condition. There are a variety of ways in which knowledge of condition can be used to better evaluate environmental states and inform decision-making. Knowledge of risk factors, for example, can be used to prioritize restoration efforts to improve the health of streams and wetlands in poor condition, as well as to identify practices to be avoided in reviewing permit applications for work in waters. The use of multi-metric plant condition indices could be useful in better identifying achieved "lift" in wetland mitigation banks, as well as providing a more robust measure of mitigation or restoration success. It is our hope to generate some seeds for future thought and discussion on ways in which the products of these NARS surveys can enhance the protection and restoration of these aquatic resources.

Survey design to assess condition of wetlands in the United States.

The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) initiated planning in 2007 and conducted field work in 2011 for the first National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) as part of the National Aquatic Resource Surveys (NARS). It complements the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) National Wetland Status and Trends (S&T) program that estimates wetland acres nationally. The NWCA used a stratified, unequal probability survey design based on wetland information from S&T plots to select 900 sites for the conterminous 48 states. Based on site evaluation information, the NWCA estimates that there are 94.9 (± 6.20) million acres of wetlands in the NWCA target wetland population (reported in acres to be consistent with S&T). Not all of the estimated target population acres could be sampled due to accessibility and field issues. Based on the sites that could be sampled, the sampled population for the NWCA is estimated to be 62.2 (± 5.28) million acres of wetland area. Landowner denial for access was the main reason (24.7% ± 3.5%) for the sampled population being smaller than the target population, and physical inaccessibility was the second reason (6.8% ± 2.1%). The NWCA 2011 survey design was successful in enabling a national survey for wetland condition to be conducted and coordinated with the USFWS S&T survey of wetland extent. The NWCA 2016 survey design has been modified to address sample frame issues resulting from the difference in S&T focusing only on national estimates and NWCA focusing on national and regional estimates.

Striving for consistency in the National Wetland Condition Assessment: developing a reference condition approach for assessing wetlands at a continental scale.

One of the biggest challenges when conducting a continental-scale assessment of wetlands is setting appropriate expectations for the assessed sites. The challenge occurs for two reasons: (1) tremendous natural environmental heterogeneity exists within a continental landscape and (2) reference sites vary in quality both across and within major regions of the continent. We describe the process used to set reference expectations and define a disturbance gradient for the United States (US) Environmental Protection Agency's National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA). The NWCA employed a probability design and sampled 1138 wetland sites across the conterminous US to make an unbiased assessment of wetland condition. NWCA vegetation data were used to define 10 reporting groups based on ecoregion and wetland type that reduced the naturally occurring variation in wetland vegetation associated with continent-wide differences in biogeography. These reporting groups were used as a basis for defining quantitative criteria for least disturbed and most disturbed conditions and developing indices and thresholds for categories of ecological condition and disturbance. The NWCA vegetation assessment was based on a reference site approach, in which the least disturbed reference sites were used to establish benchmarks for assessing the condition of vegetation at other sites. Reference sites for each reporting group were identified by filtering NWCA sample data for disturbance using a series of abiotic variables. Ultimately, 277 least disturbed sites were used to set reference expectations for the NWCA. The NWCA provided a unique opportunity to improve our conceptual and technical understanding of how to best apply a reference condition approach to assessing wetlands across the US. These results will enhance the technical quality of future national assessments.

County-level air quality and the prevalence of diagnosed chronic kidney disease in the US Medicare population.

BACKGROUND: Considerable geographic variation exists in the prevalence of chronic kidney disease across the United States. While some of this variability can be explained by differences in patient-level risk factors, substantial variability still exists. We hypothesize this may be due to understudied environmental exposures such as air pollution. METHODS: Using data on 1.1 million persons from the 2010 5% Medicare sample and Environmental Protection Agency air-quality measures, we examined the association between county-level particulate matter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5) and the prevalence of diagnosed CKD, based on claims. Modified Poisson regression was used to estimate associations (prevalence ratios [PR]) between county PM2.5 concentration and individual-level diagnosis of CKD, adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, hypertension, diabetes, and urban/rural status. RESULTS: Prevalence of diagnosed CKD ranged from 0% to 60% by county (median = 16%). As a continuous variable, PM2.5 concentration shows adjusted PR of diagnosed CKD = 1.03 (95% CI: 1.02-1.05; p<0.001) for an increase of 4 µg/m3 in PM2.5. Investigation by quartiles shows an elevated prevalence of diagnosed CKD for mean PM2.5 levels ≥14 µg/m3 (highest quartile: PR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.03-1.07), which is consistent with current ambient air quality standard of 12 µg/m3, but much lower than the level typically considered healthy for sensitive groups (~40 µg/m3). CONCLUSION: A positive association was observed between county-level PM2.5 concentration and diagnosed CKD. The reliance on CKD diagnostic codes likely identified associations with the most severe CKD cases. These results can be strengthened by exploring laboratory-based diagnosis of CKD, individual measures of exposure to multiple pollutants, and more control of confounding.

The influence of control group reproduction on the statistical power of the Environmental Protection Agency's Medaka Extended One Generation Reproduction Test (MEOGRT).

Because of various Congressional mandates to protect the environment from endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) initiated the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program. In the context of this framework, the Office of Research and Development within the USEPA developed the Medaka Extended One Generation Reproduction Test (MEOGRT) to characterize the endocrine action of a suspected EDC. One important endpoint of the MEOGRT is fecundity of medaka breeding pairs. Power analyses were conducted to determine the number of replicates needed in proposed test designs and to determine the effects that varying reproductive parameters (e.g. mean fecundity, variance, and days with no egg production) would have on the statistical power of the test. The MEOGRT Reproduction Power Analysis Tool (MRPAT) is a software tool developed to expedite these power analyses by both calculating estimates of the needed reproductive parameters (e.g. population mean and variance) and performing the power analysis under user specified scenarios. Example scenarios are detailed that highlight the importance of the reproductive parameters on statistical power. When control fecundity is increased from 21 to 38 eggs per pair per day and the variance decreased from 49 to 20, the gain in power is equivalent to increasing replication by 2.5 times. On the other hand, if 10% of the breeding pairs, including controls, do not spawn, the power to detect a 40% decrease in fecundity drops to 0.54 from nearly 0.98 when all pairs have some level of egg production. Perhaps most importantly, MRPAT was used to inform the decision making process that lead to the final recommendation of the MEOGRT to have 24 control breeding pairs and 12 breeding pairs in each exposure group.

Estimating summer nutrient concentrations in Northeastern lakes from SPARROW load predictions and modeled lake depth and volume.

Global nutrient cycles have been altered by the use of fossil fuels and fertilizers resulting in increases in nutrient loads to aquatic systems. In the United States, excess nutrients have been repeatedly reported as the primary cause of lake water quality impairments. Setting nutrient criteria that are protective of a lakes ecological condition is one common solution; however, the data required to do this are not always easily available. A useful solution for this is to combine available field data (i.e., The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) National Lake Assessment (NLA)) with average annual nutrient load models (i.e., USGS SPARROW model) to estimate summer concentrations across a large number of lakes. In this paper we use this combined approach and compare the observed total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TN) concentrations in Northeastern lakes from the 2007 National Lake Assessment to those predicted by the Northeast SPARROW model. We successfully adjusted the SPARROW predictions to the NLA observations with the use of Vollenweider equations, simple input-output models that predict nutrient concentrations in lakes based on nutrient loads and hydraulic residence time. This allows us to better predict summer concentrations of TN and TP in Northeastern lakes and ponds. On average we improved our predicted concentrations of TN and TP with Vollenweider models by 18.7% for nitrogen and 19.0% for phosphorus. These improved predictions are being used in other studies to model ecosystem services (e.g., aesthetics) and dis-services (e.g. cyanobacterial blooms) for ~18,000 lakes in the Northeastern United States.

Evaluation of EPA's Tier 1 Endocrine Screening Battery and recommendations for improving the interpretation of screening results.

EPA's Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) was implemented in 2009-2010 with the issuance of test orders requiring manufacturers and registrants of 58 pesticide active ingredients and nine pesticide inert/high production volume chemicals to evaluate the potential of these chemicals to interact with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid hormone systems. The required endocrine screening will be conducted over the next 2-3years. Based on estimates of the impacted sectors, costs are at least $750,000-$1,000,000 per substance if all of the Tier 1 assays must be conducted. The screening will entail evaluation of responses in EPA's Tier 1 Endocrine Screening Battery (EDSP ESB), consisting of 11 distinct in vitro and in vivo assays. We reviewed the details of each test method and describe the critical factors integral to the design and conduct of the EDSP ESB assays as well as the limitations related to specificity and sensitivity. We discuss challenges to evaluating each assay, identify significant shortcomings, and make recommendations to enhance interpretation of results. Factors that affect the length of time necessary to complete the EDSP ESB for any particular substance are presented, and based on the overall analysis, we recommend a sequence for running the EDSP ESB assays. It is imperative that a structured, systematic weight of evidence framework is promptly developed, subjected to peer review and adopted. This will help to ensure an objective analysis of the results of the required EDSP screening, consistent integration of results across the EDSP ESB assays, and consistent decision making as to whether subsequent testing for adverse effects is needed. Based upon the limitations of the current EPA EDSP ESB, we concur with the Agency's Scientific Advisory Panel's recommendation that after the initial set of substances has been screened, the EDSP ESB should pause so that the results can be fully analyzed to determine the value of the existing assays. After this analysis, assays that are unnecessarily redundant or that lack endocrine specificity should be eliminated and if necessary, replaced by new or revised screens that are more mechanistically specific, rapid, reliable, and cost effective.

The use of developmental neurotoxicity data in pesticide risk assessments.

Following the passage of the Food Quality Protection Act, which mandated an increased focus on evaluating the potential toxicity of pesticides to children, the number of guideline developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) studies (OPPTS 870.6300) submitted to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) was greatly increased. To evaluate the impact of available DNT studies on individual chemical risk assessments, the ways in which data from these studies are being used in pesticide risk assessment were investigated. In addition, the neurobehavioral and neuropathological parameters affected at the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) for each study were evaluated to ascertain whether some types of endpoints were consistently more sensitive than others. As of December 2008, final OPP reviews of DNT studies for 72 pesticide chemicals were available; elimination of studies with major deficiencies resulted in a total of 69 that were included in this analysis. Of those studies, 15 had been used to determine the point of departure for one or more risk assessment scenarios, and an additional 13 were determined to have the potential for use as a point of departure for future risk assessments (selection is dependent upon review of the entire database available at the time of reassessment). Analysis of parameters affected at the study LOAELs indicated that no single parameter was consistently more sensitive than another. Early assessment time points (e.g., postnatal day (PND) 11/21) tended to be more sensitive than later time points (e.g., PND 60). These results demonstrate that data generated using the current guideline DNT study protocol are useful in providing points of departure for risk assessments. The results of these studies also affirm the importance of evaluating a spectrum of behavioral and neuropathological endpoints, in both young and adult animals, to improve the detection of the potential for a chemical to cause developmental neurotoxicity.

ACToR--Aggregated Computational Toxicology Resource.

ACToR (Aggregated Computational Toxicology Resource) is a database and set of software applications that bring into one central location many types and sources of data on environmental chemicals. Currently, the ACToR chemical database contains information on chemical structure, in vitro bioassays and in vivo toxicology assays derived from more than 150 sources including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Centers for Disease Control (CDC), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), state agencies, corresponding government agencies in Canada, Europe and Japan, universities, the World Health Organization (WHO) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). At the EPA National Center for Computational Toxicology, ACToR helps manage large data sets being used in a high-throughput environmental chemical screening and prioritization program called ToxCast.

Billions for biodefense: federal agency biodefense funding, FY2001-FY2005.

Over the past several years, the United States government has spent substantial resources on preparing the nation against a bioterrorist attack. This article analyzes the civilian biodefense funding by the federal government from fiscal years 2001 through 2005, specifically analyzing the budgets and allocations for biodefense at the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Defense, the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Science Foundation, and the Department of State. In total, approximately $14.5 billion has been funded for civilian biodefense through FY2004, with an additional $7.6 billion in the President's budget request for FY2005.

Application of intrawell testing of RCRA groundwater monitoring data when no upgradient well exists.

A statistical quality control approach to detect changes in groundwater quality from a regulated waste unit is described. The approach applies the combined Shewhart-CUSUM control chart methodology for intrawell comparison of analyte concentrations over time and does not require an upgradient well. A case study from the U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford Site is used for illustration purposes. This method is broadly applicable in groundwater monitoring programs where there is no clearly defined upgradient location, the groundwater flow rate is exceptionally slow, or where a high degree of spatial variability exists in parameter concentrations. This study also indicates that the use of the Data Quality Objectives (DQO) process can assist in designing an efficient and cost-effective groundwater monitoring plan to achieve the optimum goal of both low false positive and low false negative rates (high power).

Pesticide exports from U.S. ports, 1997-2000.

U.S. Customs records reveal that 3.2 billion pounds of pesticide products were exported in 1997-2000, an average rate of 45 tons per hour. Nearly 65 million pounds of the exported pesticides were either forbidden or severely restricted in the United States; however, no banned pesticide export was recorded for the year 2000. 2.2 million pounds of pesticides regulated under a treaty on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were exported between 1997 and 1999, with no such export in 2000. Exports of pesticides subject to the prior informed consent (PIC) treaty decreased 97% from the 1997 total of nearly 3 million pounds. Thus, international efforts to reduce the trade in hazardous pesticides may be bearing fruit. However, they are balanced by high rates of export of pesticides designated "extremely hazardous" by the WHO (89 million pounds), pesticides associated with cancer (170 million pounds), and pesticides associated with endocrine disrupting effects (368 million pounds), mostly to developing countries. These findings point in two directions: first, progress is possible, and second, the focus of international efforts should be expanded. From public health and environmental protection perspectives, exports of hazardous pesticides remain unacceptably high.