Phylogenetic and phenotypic characterization of two novel clade 2.3.2.1 H5N2 subtype avian influenza viruses from chickens in China.

The extended co-circulation of H5 subtype highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses and H9N2 low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses has inevitably facilitated gene reassortment between the two subtypes in fields. And, novel reassortant H5NX viruses harboring partial or even whole sets of H9N2 internal genes have continuously been detected, such as clade 2.3.4.4 H5N2 or H5N6 reassortants. Here, we report two novel H5N2 subtype HPAI isolates of HF9 and QY5 from chickens in live poultry markets during routine surveillance in 2018. Phylogenetic analysis showed that those two H5N2 strains both possessed the HA genes from clade 2.3.2.1e of H5N1 viruses but all the other seven gene segments consistently from the endemic S genotype of H9N2 subtype viruses. Further analysis revealed that HF9 and QY5 differed only in six sites including K353R, A588T and T661I in PB2, I682V and L704S in PB1 plus G631S in PA at the amino acid level. A chicken regression experiment confirmed that both HF9 and QY5 were lethal infection to all tested chickens via contact transmission. Moreover, those two isolates could immediately replicate in mice lungs without adaptation. However, mortality rate of those two variants were distinct in mice model, HF9 with 100% but QY5 with just 20% at the infection dosage of 106.0EID50 per mouse. We suppose that the phenotypic difference may probably be attributed to the amino acid substitutions in the polymerase genes between the two isolates that constitute of a subject of further ongoing research.

Emergence, prevalence, and evolution of H5N8 avian influenza viruses in central China, 2020.

Highly pathogenic influenza A(H5N8) viruses have caused several worldwide outbreaks in birds and are able cross the species barrier to infect humans, posing a substantial threat to public health. After the first detection of H5N8 viruses in deceased swans in Inner Mongolia, we performed early warning and active monitoring along swan migration routes in central China. We isolated and sequenced 42 avian influenza viruses, including 40 H5N8 viruses, 1 H5N2 virus, and 1 H9N2 virus, in central China. Our H5N8 viruses isolated in swan stopover sites and wintering grounds showed high nucleotide homologies in the whole genome, revealing a common evolutionary source. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the H5 viruses of clade 2.3.4.4b prevalent in 2020 have further diverged into two sub-clades: b1 and b2. The phylogeographic analysis also showed that the viruses of sub-clade b2 most likely originated from poultry in Russia. Notably, whooper swans were found to be responsible for the introduction of sub-clade b2 viruses in central China; whooper and tundra swans play a role in viral spread in the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin, respectively. Our findings highlight swans as an indicator species for transborder spreading and monitoring of the H5N8 virus.

Genetic Characterization and Pathogenesis of Three Novel Reassortant H5N2 Viruses in South Korea, 2018.

The outbreaks of H5N2 avian influenza viruses have occasionally caused the death of thousands of birds in poultry farms. Surveillance during the 2018 winter season in South Korea revealed three H5N2 isolates in feces samples collected from wild birds (KNU18-28: A/Wild duck/South Korea/KNU18-28/2018, KNU18-86: A/Bean Goose/South Korea/KNU18-86/2018, and KNU18-93: A/Wild duck/South Korea/KNU18-93/2018). Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that these viruses arose from reassortment events among various virus subtypes circulating in South Korea and other countries in the East Asia-Australasian Flyway. The NS gene of the KNU18-28 and KNU18-86 isolates was closely related to that of China's H10N3 strain, whereas the KNU18-93 strain originated from the H12N2 strain in Japan, showing two different reassortment events and different from a low pathogenic H5N3 (KNU18-91) virus which was isolated at the same day and same place with KNU18-86 and KNU18-93. These H5N2 isolates were characterized as low pathogenic avian influenza viruses. However, many amino acid changes in eight gene segments were identified to enhance polymerase activity and increase adaptation and virulence in mice and mammals. Experiments reveal that viral replication in MDCK cells was quite high after 12 hpi, showing the ability to replicate in mouse lungs. The hematoxylin and eosin-stained (H&E) lung sections indicated different degrees of pathogenicity of the three H5N2 isolates in mice compared with that of the control H1N1 strain. The continuing circulation of these H5N2 viruses may represent a potential threat to mammals and humans. Our findings highlight the need for intensive surveillance of avian influenza virus circulation in South Korea to prevent the risks posed by these reassortment viruses to animal and public health.

H5 low pathogenic avian influenza viruses maintained in wild birds in China.

Low pathogenic avian influenza virus, H5 or H7 subtype, possesses the potential capability to change to highly pathogenic variant, which damages wild waterfowl, domestic poultry, and mammalian hosts. In regular active surveillance of avian influenza virus from wild birds in China in 2020, we isolated six H5 avian influenza viruses, including one H5N2, two H5N3, and three H5N8. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the H5N2 and H5N3 isolates clustered into Eurasian lineage, whereas the H5N8 viruses were originated in North America. The HA proteins of six viruses carried the cleavage-site motif PQRETR↓GLF, which indicated low pathogenicity of the viruses in chickens. However, the N30D, I43M, and T215A mutations in M1 protein and the P42S, I106M, and C138F residues changed in NS1 protein, implying all viruses could exhibit increased virulence in mice. Viral replication kinetics in mammalian cells demonstrated that the three representative viruses had the ability to replicate in both MDCK cells and A549 cells with low titers. Even though two of three representatives, WS/SX/S3-620/2020(H5N3) and ML/AH/A3-770/2020(H5N8), did not replicate and transmit efficiently in poultry (chickens), they did replicate and transmit efficiently in waterfowl (ducks). Viral pathogenicity in mice indicated that both H5N2 and H5N3 viruses are able to replicate in the nasal turbinates and lungs of mice without prior adaptation, while the H5N8 virus could not. The intercontinental and cross-species transmission of viruses may continuously exist in China, thereby providing constant opportunities for virus reassortment with local resident AIVs. Thus, it is crucial to continuously monitor migration routes for AIVs by systematic surveillance.

Eco-Epidemiological Evidence of the Transmission of Avian and Human Influenza A Viruses in Wild Pigs in Campeche, Mexico.

Influenza, a zoonosis caused by various influenza A virus subtypes, affects a wide range of species, including humans. Pig cells express both sialyl-α-2,3-Gal and sialyl-α-2,6-Gal receptors, which make them susceptible to infection by avian and human viruses, respectively. To date, it is not known whether wild pigs in Mexico are affected by influenza virus subtypes, nor whether this would make them a potential risk of influenza transmission to humans. In this work, 61 hogs from two municipalities in Campeche, Mexico, were sampled. Hemagglutination inhibition assays were performed in 61 serum samples, and positive results were found for human H1N1 (11.47%), swine H1N1 (8.19%), and avian H5N2 (1.63%) virus variants. qRT-PCR assays were performed on the nasal swab, tracheal, and lung samples, and 19.67% of all hogs were positive to these assays. An avian H5N2 virus, first reported in 1994, was identified by sequencing. Our results demonstrate that wild pigs are participating in the exposure, transmission, maintenance, and possible diversification of influenza viruses in fragmented habitats, highlighting the synanthropic behavior of this species, which has been poorly studied in Mexico.

Agricultural and geographic factors shaped the North American 2015 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N2 outbreak.

The 2014-2015 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5NX outbreak represents the largest and most expensive HPAI outbreak in the United States to date. Despite extensive traditional and molecular epidemiological studies, factors associated with the spread of HPAI among midwestern poultry premises remain unclear. To better understand the dynamics of this outbreak, 182 full genome HPAI H5N2 sequences isolated from commercial layer chicken and turkey production premises were analyzed using evolutionary models able to accommodate epidemiological and geographic information. Epidemiological compartmental models embedded in a phylogenetic framework provided evidence that poultry type acted as a barrier to the transmission of virus among midwestern poultry farms. Furthermore, after initial introduction, the propagation of HPAI cases was self-sustainable within the commercial poultry industries. Discrete trait diffusion models indicated that within state viral transitions occurred more frequently than inter-state transitions. Distance and sample size were very strongly supported as associated with viral transition between county groups (Bayes Factor > 30.0). Together these findings indicate that the different types of midwestern poultry industries were not a single homogenous population, but rather, the outbreak was shaped by poultry industries and geographic factors.

Isolation of a Novel Reassortant Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N2) Virus in Egypt.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and H5N8 have become endemic among domestic poultry in Egypt since 2006 and 2016, respectively. In parallel, the low pathogenic avian influenza H9N2 virus has been endemic since 2010. Despite the continuous circulation of these subtypes for several years, no natural reassortant has been detected so far among the domestic poultry population in Egypt. In this study, the HPAI (H5N2) virus was isolated from a commercial duck farm, giving evidence of the emergence of the first natural reassortment event in domestic poultry in Egypt. The virus was derived as a result of genetic reassortment between avian influenza viruses of H5N8 and H9N2 subtypes circulating in Egypt. The exchange of the neuraminidase segment and high number of acquired mutations might be associated with an alteration in the biological propensities of this virus.

Multiplex one-step real-time PCR assay for rapid simultaneous detection of velogenic and mesogenic Newcastle disease virus and H5-subtype avian influenza virus.

H5 avian influenza virus (AIV) and velogenic Newcastle disease virus (v-NDV) are pathogens listed in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code and are considered key pathogens to be eliminated in poultry production. Molecular techniques for rapid detection of H5 AIV and v-NDV are required to investigate their transmission characteristics and to guide prevention. Traditional virus isolation, using embryonated chicken eggs, is time-consuming and cannot be used as a rapid diagnostic technology. In this study, a multiplex real-time RT-PCR (RRT-PCR) detection method for six H5 AIV clades, three v-NDV subtypes, and one mesogenic NDV subtype was successfully established. The detection limit of our multiplex NDV and H5 AIV RRT-PCR was five copies per reaction for each pathogen, with good linearity and efficiency (y = -3.194x + 38.427 for H5 AIV and y = -3.32x + 38.042 for NDV). Multiplex PCR showed good intra- and inter-assay reproducibility, with coefficient of variance (CV) less than 1%. Furthermore, using the RRT-PCR method, H5 AIV and NDV detection rates in clinical samples were higher overall than those obtained using the traditional virus isolation method. Therefore, our method provides a promising technique for surveillance of various H5 AIV clades and multiple velogenic and mesogenic NDV subtypes in live-poultry markets.

Serological evidence of H5-subtype influenza A virus infection in indigenous avian and mammalian species in Korea.

In Korea, H5-subtype highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has caused huge economic losses in poultry farms through outbreaks of H5N1 since 2003, H5N8 since 2013 and H5N6 since 2016. Although it was reported that long-distance migratory birds may play a major role in the global spread of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), transmission from such birds to poultry has not been confirmed. Intermediate hosts in the wild also may be a potential factor in viral transmission. Therefore, a total of 367 serum samples from wild animals were collected near major migratory bird habitats from 2011 to 2016 and tested by AIV-specific blocking ELISA and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test. Two mammalian and eight avian species were seropositive according to the ELISA test. Among these, two mammalian (Hydropotes inermis and Prionailurus bengalensis) and three avian (Aegypius monachus, Cygnus cygnus, and Bubo bubo) species showed high HI titres (> 1,280) against one or two H5-subtype AIVs. As H. inermis (water deer), P. bengalensis (leopard cat), and B. bubo (Eurasian eagle owl) are indigenous animals in Korea, evidence of H5-subtype AIV in these animals implies that continuous monitoring of indigenous animals should be followed to understand interspecies transmission ecology of H5-subtype influenza viruses.

Epidemiologic Investigation of Highly Pathogenic H5N2 Avian Influenza Among Upper Midwest U.S. Turkey Farms, 2015.

In 2015, an outbreak of H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) occurred in the United States, severely impacting the turkey industry in the upper midwestern United States. Industry, government, and academic partners worked together to conduct a case-control investigation of the outbreak on turkey farms in the Upper Midwest. Case farms were confirmed to have HPAI-infected flocks, and control farms were farms with noninfected turkey flocks at a similar stage of production. Both case and control farms were affiliated with a large integrated turkey company. A questionnaire administered to farm managers and supervisors assessed farm biosecurity, litter handling, dead bird disposal, farm visitor and worker practices, and presence of wild birds on operations during the 2 wk prior to HPAI confirmation on case premises and the corresponding time frame for control premises. Sixty-three farms, including 37 case farms and 26 control farms were included in the analysis. We identified several factors significantly associated with the odds of H5N2 case farm status and that may have contributed to H5N2 transmission to and from operations. Factors associated with increased risk included close proximity to other turkey operations, soil disruption (e.g., tilling) in a nearby field within 14 days prior to the outbreak, and rendering of dead birds. Observation of wild mammals near turkey barns was associated with reduced risk. When analyses focused on farms identified with H5N2 infection before April 22 (Period 1), associations with H5N2-positive farm status included soil disruption in a nearby field within 14 days prior to the outbreak and a high level of visitor biosecurity. High level of worker biosecurity had a protective effect. During the study period after April 22 (Period 2), factors associated with HPAI-positive farm status included nonasphalt roads leading to the farm and use of a vehicle wash station or spray area. Presence of wild birds near dead bird disposal areas was associated with reduced risk. Study results indicated that the initial introduction and spread of H5N2 virus likely occurred by both environmental and between-farm pathways. Transmission dynamics appeared to change with progression of the outbreak. Despite enhanced biosecurity protocols, H5N2 transmission continued, highlighting the need to review geographic/topologic factors such as farm proximity and potential dust or air transmission associated with soil disruption. It is likely that biosecurity improvements will reduce the extent and speed of spread of future outbreaks, but our results suggest that environmental factors may also play a significant role in farms becoming infected with HPAI.

Emerging highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza viruses in France during 2015/16: phylogenetic analyses and markers for zoonotic potential.

Several new highly pathogenic (HP) H5 avian influenza virus (AIV) have been detected in poultry farms from south-western France since November 2015, among which an HP H5N1. The zoonotic potential and origin of these AIVs immediately became matters of concern. One virus of each subtype H5N1 (150169a), H5N2 (150233) and H5N9 (150236) was characterised. All proved highly pathogenic for poultry as demonstrated molecularly by the presence of a polybasic cleavage site in their HA protein - with a sequence (HQRRKR/GLF) previously unknown among avian H5 HPAI viruses - or experimentally by the in vivo demonstration of an intravenous pathogenicity index of 2.9 for the H5N1 HP isolate. Phylogenetic analyses based on the full genomes obtained by NGS confirmed that the eight viral segments of the three isolates were all part of avian Eurasian phylogenetic lineage but differed from the Gs/Gd/1/96-like lineage. The study of the genetic characteristics at specific amino acid positions relevant for modulating the adaptation to and the virulence for mammals showed that presently, these viruses possess most molecular features characteristic of AIV and lack some major characteristics required for efficient respiratory transmission to or between humans. The three isolates are therefore predicted to have no significant pandemic potential.

Reoccurrence of Avian Influenza A(H5N2) Virus Clade 2.3.4.4 in Wild Birds, Alaska, USA, 2016.

We report reoccurrence of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N2) virus clade 2.3.4.4 in a wild mallard in Alaska, USA, in August 2016. Identification of this virus in a migratory species confirms low-frequency persistence in North America and the potential for re-dissemination of the virus during the 2016 fall migration.

Changes in adaptation of H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5 clade 2.3.4.4 viruses in chickens and mallards.

H5N2 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses caused a severe poultry outbreak in the United States (U.S.) during 2015. In order to examine changes in adaptation of this viral lineage, the infectivity, pathogenicity and transmission of poultry H5N2 viruses were investigated in chickens and mallards in comparison to the wild duck 2014 U.S. index H5N2 virus. The four poultry isolates examined had a lower mean bird infectious dose than the index virus but still transmitted poorly to direct contacts. In mallards, two of the H5N2 poultry isolates had similar high infectivity and transmissibility as the index H5N2 virus, the H5N8 U.S. index virus, and a 2005 H5N1 clade 2.2 virus. Mortality occurred with the H5N1 virus and, interestingly, with one of two poultry H5N2 isolates. Increased virus adaptation to chickens was observed with the poultry H5N2 viruses; however these viruses retained high adaptation to mallards but pathogenicity was differently affected.

Time-space analysis of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N2 outbreak in the US.

BACKGROUND: In early 2015, highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N2 caused outbreaks in commercial poultry farms in Minnesota and neighboring states where more than 48 million birds were affected. To date, the origin and transmission pathways of HPAI H5N2 have not been conclusively established. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed forty-six samples from turkeys and their environment that were collected at different time-points of the outbreak to identify origins and within outbreak evolutionary changes. We performed de-novo whole genome sequencing from primary samples and the most recent common ancestors of the PB2, PA, HA5, M and NS segments were traced back to Japanese HPAI H5N8 isolates. These segments appeared to have diverged from the ancestor around June and November 2014. RESULTS: The time to most recent common ancestor analysis for PB1, NP and NA2 segments suggest two likely possibilities of reassortant HPAI H5N2 origin - either a reassortment in Alaska area or multiple reassortments with North American low pathogenic avian influenza strains, before the HPAI H5N2 outbreak strain emerged. Within the outbreak, viruses clustered into two and three subgroups suggesting high substitution rates of 0.702x10-2 - 1.665x10-2 (subs/site/year), over the 5-month outbreak period. CONCLUSIONS: Data are suggestive of a fast evolving HPAI strain within an outbreak that should be taken into consideration in developing appropriate control strategies in the future.

Genetic characterization of H5N2 influenza viruses isolated from wild birds in Japan suggests multiple reassortment.

Low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) of the H5 subtype can mutate to highly pathogenic forms, potentially destabilizing the poultry industry. Wild migratory birds are considered a natural reservoir of LPAIVs capable of dispersing both high- and low-pathogenic forms of the virus. Therefore, surveillance and characterization of AIV in wild birds are essential. Here, we report on the isolation and genetic characterization of 10 AIVs of the H5N2 subtype obtained through surveillance in Hokkaido, Japan, during 2009 and 2011. Full-genome sequencing revealed that the H5 and N2 genes of these isolates are all closely related to each other, belonging to the Eurasian avian-like lineage, but they are unrelated to H5 highly pathogenic strains of clade 2.3.4.4. The internal genes of the isolates were found to be diverse, consistent with our hypothesis that these H5N2 strains have undergone multiple reassortment events. Even though all of the H5N2 isolates were characterized as LPAIV based on the amino acid sequences at the HA cleavage site, this analysis demonstrates a diverse pool of precursors that may seed future outbreaks in poultry and possible human transmissions, suggesting the need for high-quality surveillance.

[Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis of a Highly Pathogenic H5N2 Avian Influenza Virus Isolated from Duck].

In 2016,routine influenza virus surveillance was conducted in the live poultry markets of Wuhan, Hubei Province. An H5N2 subtype avian influenza virus(AIV)was isolated from ducks in Wuhan. The entire genome of this virus isolate was sequenced,and molecular phylogenetic analysis performed. The results indicated that the HA gene belonged to clade 2.3.4.4and contained multiple basic amino acids at the cleavage site, which is characteristic of highly pathogenic AIV. Sequence alignment revealed that the isolate shared a high degree of homology with different H5 subtype AIVs isolated from waterfowl in southern China in recent years. This isolate was likely a natural reassortant from different subtype AIVs. This study provides epidemiological evidence of influenza evolution. Continuation of molecular epidemiology studies of H5 subtype influenza viruses in live poultry markets is important for understanding their role in the variation and evolution of highly pathogenic AIVs and their potential hazardous effects on human health. Furthermore, this information is important for strengthening comprehensive AIV surveillance and control measures.

Sequence and phylogenetic analyses of five low pathogenic avian influenza H5N2 viruses isolated in China.

Five H5N2 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) were isolated in Xianghai National Nature Reserve, Jilin Province, China in October 2011. They were all identified as low pathogenic AIVs (LPAIVs) based on their deduced amino acid sequences at the cleavage site of HA protein. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all gene segments clustered in the Eurasian lineage and that the nucleotide homology of the five isolates was greater for HA and NA genes than for the genes for internal proteins PB2, PB1, PA, M, NP and NS.

Recognition of dual targets by a molecular beacon-based sensor: subtyping of influenza A virus.

A molecular beacon (MB)-based sensor to offer a decisive answer in combination with information originated from dual-target inputs is designed. The system harnesses an assistant strand and thermodynamically favored designation of unpaired nucleotides (UNs) to process the binary targets in "AND-gate" format and report fluorescence in "off-on" mechanism via a formation of a DNA four-way junction (4WJ). By manipulating composition of the UNs, the dynamic fluorescence difference between the binary targets-coexisting circumstance and any other scenario was maximized. Characteristic equilibrium constant (K), change of entropy (ΔS), and association rate constant (k) between the association ("on") and dissociation ("off") states of the 4WJ were evaluated to understand unfolding behavior of MB in connection to its sensing capability. Favorable MB and UNs were furthermore designed toward analysis of genuine genetic sequences of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) in an influenza A H5N2 isolate. The MB-based sensor was demonstrated to yield a linear calibration range from 1.2 to 240 nM and detection limit of 120 pM. Furthermore, high-fidelity subtyping of influenza virus was implemented in a sample of unpurified amplicons. The strategy opens an alternative avenue of MB-based sensors for dual targets toward applications in clinical diagnosis.

Genomic and phylogenetic characterization of novel, recombinant H5N2 avian influenza virus strains isolated from vaccinated chickens with clinical symptoms in China.

Infection of poultry with diverse lineages of H5N2 avian influenza viruses has been documented for over three decades in different parts of the world, with limited outbreaks caused by this highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. In the present study, three avian H5N2 influenza viruses, A/chicken/Shijiazhuang/1209/2013, A/chicken/Chiping/0321/2014, and A/chicken/Laiwu/0313/2014, were isolated from chickens with clinical symptoms of avian influenza. Complete genomic and phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that all three isolates are novel recombinant viruses with hemagglutinin (HA) and matrix (M) genes derived from H5N1, and remaining genes derived from H9N2-like viruses. The HA cleavage motif in all three strains (PQIEGRRRKR/GL) is characteristic of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus strain. These results indicate the occurrence of H5N2 recombination and highlight the importance of continued surveillance of the H5N2 subtype virus and reformulation of vaccine strains.

Characterization of a novel highly pathogenic H5N2 avian influenza virus isolated from a duck in eastern China.

During surveillance for avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in live-poultry markets (LPMs) in eastern China in 2013, one H5N2 AIV was isolated from a duck. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the hemagglutinin of this strain belongs to clade 2.3.4 and received its genes from H5, H3 and H6 AIVs of poultry in China. The virulence of this strain was examined in chickens and mice, and it was found to be highly pathogenic in chickens but demonstrated moderate pathogenicity in mice. These results suggest that active surveillance of AIVs in LPMs should be used in an early warning system for avian influenza outbreaks.