Education and armed conflict: consequences on the population of children and adolescents in Colombia: editorial / Educación y conflicto armado: consecuencias en la población de niños, niñas y adolescentes en Colombia: editorial

Throughout history, the right to education has been a determining and unquestionably necessary factor for the improvement of people; however, as a socio-political process, it has not been free of adversities. In this sense, for more than six decades, Colombia has lived in the context of an internal armed conflict

A lo largo de la historia, el derecho a la educación ha sido un factor determinante e indiscutiblemente necesario para la superación de las personas; sin embargo, como proceso sociopolítico, no ha estado exento de adversidades. En este sentido, desde hace más de seis décadas, Colombia vive en el contexto de un conflicto armado interno

Role of self-esteem and family-level social capital in the pathway from victimization to aggression.

BACKGROUND: Children's aggressive behaviors remain a critical global concern that may cause harm to other children's behavioral, emotional and psychological, social, and academic functions. However, in this context, the possibility that children's aggressive behaviors might be responsive consequences triggered by the antecedent victimization should not be dismissed. In order to explore the pathway from victimization to later aggression, the structural relationships among victimization, self-esteem, social capital within the family, and aggression were tested, followed by further examination of the mediating roles of social capital within the family and the sequential mediating role of self-esteem and social capital in the pathway. METHOD: To test this hypothesized model, the responses of 2,844 fourth graders (48.4 % female), extracted from the Korean Youth Panel Survey (KYPS) were used. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to test the hypothesized model using Mplus 7.4. RESULTS: According to the findings, victimization indirectly influenced later displays of aggression, but not directly. In addition, social capital either from parent(s) or sibling(s) was significantly mediated in the pathway from victimization to aggression. Lastly, when considering self- esteem in the model, the sequential mediating role of self-esteem and social capital from parent(s) was confirmed in the pathway, but not for the other sequential mediating role of self-esteem and social capital from sibling(s). CONCLUSION: The study's findings reveal the necessity of reconsidering the adequacy of a punitive approach towards children who display aggression. They also provide guidance for determining where to intervene in preventing victimized children from developing aggression. Practical implications are discussed accordingly.

The moderating role of teacher-student relationships on the association between peer victimization and depression in students with intellectual disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Students with intellectual disabilities (ID) are at increased risk of peer victimization and depressive symptoms. Little is known about the protective and aggravating factors that influence the association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms among students with ID. AIMS: This study assesses the moderating role of two facets of teacher-student relationships (TSR)-warmth and conflict-on the association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms. METHODS: A sample of 395 students (aged 11-22) with mild and moderate ID was recruited in Canada and Australia. RESULTS: Hierarchical multiple regressions indicated that victimization and TSR conflict were both associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, and that TSR conflict moderated the associations between both TSR warmth and victimization, and depressive symptoms. TSR warmth was related to lower levels of depression only for students who also reported a low level of TSR conflict. Similarly, associations between victimization and depression were weaker among students exposed to more conflictual TSR. CONCLUSIONS: Students with ID are at increased risk of developing depressive symptoms when exposed to negative social relationships (i.e., peer victimization or TSR conflict). For these students, the benefits of TSR warmth were far less important than the consequences of conflict.

A realist review of which advocacy interventions work for which abused women under what circumstances.

BACKGROUND: Intimate partner abuse (including coercive control, physical, sexual, economic, emotional and economic abuse) is common worldwide. Advocacy may help women who are in, or have left, an abusive intimate relationship, to stop or reduce repeat victimisation and overcome consequences of the abuse. Advocacy primarily involves education, safety planning support and increasing access to different services. It may be stand-alone or part of other services and interventions, and may be provided within healthcare, criminal justice, social, government or specialist domestic violence services. We focus on the abuse of women, as interventions for abused men require different considerations. OBJECTIVES: To assess advocacy interventions for intimate partner abuse in women, in terms of which interventions work for whom, why and in what circumstances. SEARCH METHODS: In January 2019 we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, 12 other databases, two trials registers and two relevant websites. The search had three phases: scoping of articles to identify candidate theories; iterative recursive search for studies to explore and fill gaps in these theories; and systematic search for studies to test, confirm or refute our explanatory theory. SELECTION CRITERIA: Empirical studies of any advocacy or multi-component intervention including advocacy, intended for women aged 15 years and over who were experiencing or had experienced any form of intimate partner abuse, or of advocates delivering such interventions, or experiences of women who were receiving or had received such an intervention. Partner abuse encompasses coercive control in the absence of physical abuse. For theory development, we included studies that did not strictly fit our original criteria but provided information useful for theory development. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Four review authors independently extracted data, with double assessment of 10% of the data, and assessed risk of bias and quality of the evidence. We adopted RAMESES (Realist and meta-narrative evidence syntheses: evolving standards) standards for reporting results. We applied a realist approach to the analysis. MAIN RESULTS: We included 98 studies (147 articles). There were 88 core studies: 37 focused on advocates (4 survey-based, 3 instrument development, 30 qualitative focus) and seven on abused women (6 qualitative studies, 1 survey); 44 were experimental intervention studies (some including qualitative evaluations). Ten further studies (3 randomised controlled trials (RCTs), 1 intervention process evaluation, 1 qualitative study, 2 mixed methods studies, 2 surveys of women, and 1 mixed methods study of women and staff) did not fit the original criteria but added useful information, as befitting a realist approach. Two studies are awaiting classification and three are ongoing.Advocacy interventions varied considerably in contact hours, profession delivering and setting.We constructed a conceptual model from six essential principles based on context-mechanism-outcome (CMO) patterns.We have moderate and high confidence in evidence for the importance of considering both women's vulnerabilities and intersectionalities and the trade-offs of abuse-related decisions in the contexts of individual women's lives. Decisions should consider the risks to the woman's safety from the abuse. Whether actions resulting from advocacy increase or decrease abuse depends on contextual factors (e.g. severity and type of abuse), and the outcomes the particular advocacy intervention is designed to address (e.g. increasing successful court orders versus decreasing depression).We have low confidence in evidence regarding the significance of physical dependencies, being pregnant or having children. There were links between setting (high confidence), and potentially also theoretical underpinnings of interventions, type, duration and intensity of advocacy, advocate discipline and outcomes (moderate and low confidence). A good therapeutic alliance was important (high confidence); this alliance might be improved when advocates are matched with abused women on ethnicity or abuse experience, exercise cultural humility, and remove structural barriers to resource access by marginalised women. We identified significant challenges for advocates in inter-organisational working, vicarious traumatisation, and lack of clarity on how much support to give a woman (moderate and high confidence). To work effectively, advocates need ongoing training, role clarity, access to resources, and peer and institutional support.Our provisional model highlights the complex way that factors combine and interact for effective advocacy. We confirmed the core ingredients of advocacy according to both women and advocates, supported by studies and theoretical considerations: education and information on abuse; rights and resources; active referral and liaising with other services; risk assessment and safety planning. We were unable to confirm the impact of complexity of the intervention (low confidence). Our low confidence in the evidence was driven mostly by a lack of relevant studies, rather than poor-quality studies, despite the size of the review. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Results confirm the core ingredients of advocacy and suggest its use rests on sound theoretical underpinnings. We determined the elements of a good therapeutic alliance and how it might be improved, with a need for particular considerations of the factors affecting marginalised women. Women's goals from advocacy should be considered in the contexts of their personal lives. Women's safety was not necessarily at greatest risk from staying with the abuser. Potentially, if undertaken for long enough, advocacy should benefit an abused woman in terms of at least one outcome providing the goals are matched to each woman's needs. Some outcomes may take months to be determined. Where abuse is severe, some interventions may increase abuse. Advocates have a challenging role and must be supported emotionally, through provision of resources and through professional training, by organisations and peers.Future research should consider the different principles identified in this review, and study outcomes should be considered in relation to the mechanisms and contexts elucidated. More longitudinal evidence is needed. Single-subject research designs may help determine exactly when effect no longer increases, to determine the duration of longitudinal work, which will likely differ for vulnerable and marginalised women. Further work is needed to ascertain how to tailor advocacy interventions to cultural variations and rural and resource-poor settings. The methods used in the included studies may, in some cases, limit the applicability and completeness of the data reported. Economic analyses are required to ascertain if resources devoted to advocacy interventions are cost-effective in healthcare and community settings.

Cyber-Victimization of People With Chronic Conditions and Disabilities: A Systematic Review of Scope and Impact.

The victimization of individuals with chronic conditions or disabilities is prevalent with severe impact at psychological and physiological levels. With the increasing use of technology these experiences were further reshaped. This systematic review aimed at scoping the experiences of cyber-victimization of people living with chronic conditions or disabilities and examine the documented impact on them. Following a four-stage search strategy in several databases including MEDLINE, Embase, PsychINFO, CINAHL, Cochrane and snowballing of references, a total of 2,922 studies were scanned and 10 studies were eventually included. Quality assessment was done in two phases using tools specific to observational studies and cyber-victimization research. A narrative synthesis of reported results covered a total of 3,070 people. Sample size ranged between 42 and 823 participants, and the age range was 6-71 years with a majority of White ethnic backgrounds. Most studies (n=9) were cross sectional. The prevalence range of cyber-victimization was 2%-41.7% based on variable definitions, duration and methods. Targeted conditions included physical impairments, intellectual disabilities and specific chronic diseases. The most common documented impact was psychological/psychiatric, mainly depression followed by anxiety and distress. Somatic health complaints and self-harm were also reported. We concluded that people with chronic conditions and disabilities were consistently at higher risk of victimization with devastating health complications. Research gaps were identified such as the need to address more conditions and acknowledge differences between heterogeneous health conditions. Other recommendations include allowing flexibility and accountability to patients/victims in research design, education on victimization and health consequences, and improving primary care.

Familias educadoras e instrumentos de paz: familia y escuela: un reto pendiente / Educating families and instruments of peace. Family and school: a pending challenge

La educación en valores para la paz una semilla que es urgente cosechar entre la familia y la escuela. El nuevo Acuerdo de Paz constituye una nueva Agenda nacional donde todos somos corresponsables: un nuevo Acuerdo Final para la Terminación del Conflicto y la Construcción de una Paz Estable y Duradera. Ser constructor de la paz estable y duradera significa apuntar a una educación de presente y de futuro. La guerra en la que nos destruimos la hacemos los unos contra los otros, la paz en la que nos reconstruimos la hacemos los unos con los otros. Al derecho fundamental a la educación se corresponde otro derecho igualmente fundamental: "la paz ha venido siendo calificada universalmente como un derecho humano superior, y requisito necesario para el ejercicio de todos los demás derechos y deberes de las personas y del ciudadano" (Acuerdo Final, 2016, p. 2). Todos los seres humanos tenemos derecho a ser educados para la paz. Muchas veces las guerras y los conflictos armados no consiguen alcanzar una o dos generaciones; la paz debe alcanzar todas las generaciones; las presentes y las futuras, para romper la recirculación de la violencia. Todos tenemos "derecho a una vida libre de violencia". Para ello Familia y Escuela deben trabajar en simbiosis como los primeros maestros y constructores de paz.

Education in values for peace a seed that is urgent to harvest between the family and the school. The new Peace Agreement constitutes a new national Schedule where we are all co-responsible: a new Final Agreement for the Termination of the Conflict and the Construction of a Stable and Lasting Peace. To be a stable and lasting peacebuilder means to aim at an education of the present and the future. The war in which we destroy ourselves is done against each other, the peace in which we rebuild is done with one another. The fundamental right to education corresponds to another equally fundamental right: "Peace has been universally qualified as a superior human right, and a necessary requirement for the exercise of all other rights and duties of individuals and citizens" (Final Agreement, 2016, p. 2). All human beings have the right to be educated for peace. Many times wars and armed conflicts fail to reach one or two generations; peace must reach all generations; present and future, to break the recirculation of violence. We all have "the right to a life free of violence." For this Family and School must work in symbiosis as the first teachers and builders of peace.

Intervention in social skills and bullying.

OBJECTIVE: to verify if the improvement of social and emotional skills reduces bullying victimization in 6th grade students 12 months after the end of the intervention. METHOD: Quasi-experimental study with 78 students who were bullying victims. A cognitive behavioral intervention based on social skills was conducted with the intervention group. The eight sessions addressed politeness, making friendships, self-control, emotional expressiveness, empathy, assertiveness and solution of interpersonal problems. Data were analyzed using Poisson regression with random effect. RESULTS: Quasi-experimental study with 78 students who were bullying victims. A cognitive behavioral intervention based on social skills was conducted with the intervention group. The eight sessions addressed politeness, making friendships, self-control, emotional expressiveness, empathy, assertiveness and solution of interpersonal problems. Data were analyzed using Poisson regression with random effect. CONCLUSION: Social skills are important in anti-bullying interventions and can be the basis for intersectoral interventions in the health area, aimed at favoring the empowerment of victims by improving their social interactions and quality of life in school.

Intervention in social skills and bullying / Intervención en habilidades sociales y acoso escolar (bullying) / Intervenção em habilidades sociais e bullying

ABSTRACT Objective: to verify if the improvement of social and emotional skills reduces bullying victimization in 6th grade students 12 months after the end of the intervention. Method: Quasi-experimental study with 78 students who were bullying victims. A cognitive behavioral intervention based on social skills was conducted with the intervention group. The eight sessions addressed politeness, making friendships, self-control, emotional expressiveness, empathy, assertiveness and solution of interpersonal problems. Data were analyzed using Poisson regression with random effect. Results: Quasi-experimental study with 78 students who were bullying victims. A cognitive behavioral intervention based on social skills was conducted with the intervention group. The eight sessions addressed politeness, making friendships, self-control, emotional expressiveness, empathy, assertiveness and solution of interpersonal problems. Data were analyzed using Poisson regression with random effect. Conclusion: Social skills are important in anti-bullying interventions and can be the basis for intersectoral interventions in the health area, aimed at favoring the empowerment of victims by improving their social interactions and quality of life in school.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Comprobar si la mejoría de las habilidades sociales reduce la victimización por acoso escolar (bullying) en estudiantes del 6º año de primaria, después de 12 meses de concluida la intervención. Método: Estudio de intervención cuasi-experimental entre 78 estudiantes víctimas de acoso escolar (bullying). Se llevó a cabo una intervención cognitivo-comportamental basada en habilidades sociales con ocho sesiones enfocadas en habilidades de civilidad, hacer amigos, autocontrol y expresividad emocional, empatía, asertividad y solución de problemas interpersonales. Los datos se analizaron a través de la Regresión de Poisson con efecto aleatorio. Resultado: El grupo intervención mejoró con respecto a las habilidades sociales; la victimización se redujo significativamente en ambos grupos (intervención y comparación), aunque en mayor cantidad en el grupo intervención. Conclusión: las habilidades sociales son importantes en mediaciones contra el acoso escolar y pueden fundamentar intervenciones intersectoriales en el área de la salud, con el fin de favorecer el empoderamiento de las víctimas mediante la mejoría de sus interacciones sociales y de la calidad de vida en la escuela.

RESUMO Objetivo: Verificar se a melhoria de habilidades sociais reduz a vitimização por bullying em estudantes do 6º ano escolar após 12 meses da finalização da intervenção. Método: Estudo de intervenção quase-experimental com 78 estudantes vítimas de bullying. Realizou-se uma intervenção cognitivo comportamental baseada em habilidades sociais com o grupo intervenção. As oito sessões realizadas enfocaram habilidades de civilidade, fazer amizades, autocontrole e expressividade emocional, empatia, assertividade e solução de problemas interpessoais. Os dados foram analisados mediante regressão de Poisson com efeito aleatório. Resultado: O grupo da intervenção melhorou significativamente as habilidades sociais. A vitimização reduziu-se significativamente em ambos os grupos (intervenção e comparação), porém, em maior quantidade no grupo intervenção. Conclusão: As habilidades sociais são importantes em intervenções antibullying e podem fundamentar intervenções intersetoriais na área da saúde, visando favorecer o empoderamento das vítimas mediante a melhoria de suas interações sociais e qualidade de vida na escola.

Long-term impacts of college sexual assaults on women survivors' educational and career attainments.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the well-documented mental and physical health problems suffered by undergraduate women sexually assaulted while on campus with an exploration of how the trauma impacts a survivor's lifetime education trajectory and career attainment. PARTICIPANTS: In November and December 2015, researchers recruited US participants using an online crowdsourcing tool and a Listserv for sexual violence prevention and response professionals. METHODS: Of 316 women who completed initial screening, 89 qualified to complete a Qualtrics survey. Eighty-one participants completed the online survey, and 32 participated in phone interviews. RESULTS: Ninety-one percent of the participants reported health problems related to the assault that they attributed to difficulties they faced in their attainment of their education and career goals. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest the importance of simultaneously examining the effects of human capital losses and mental and physical health problems attributed to the costly public health problem of campus sexual assault.

Evidence affirming school supports for Australian transgender and gender diverse students.

Background The United Nations (UN) and related UN bodies have recognised transgender and gender diverse (TGD) students' rights at the global level to full equitable access to education, and specifically sexuality education, repeatedly. METHODS: This article explores the available support for this equal access in Australia. It discusses TGD student rights in a range of Australian laws and education policies. RESULTS: It shows how the inclusion of TGD students, particularly in sexuality education, is reinforced in the current Australian National Curricula. Finally, it considers research on Australian TGD students' educational attainment, experiences of transphobic abuse and violence, and experiences in contexts where they do and do not have staff (and other) support. It also shows that contrary to the picture of TGD students as victims leading inherently negative lives often seen in research, this group is nevertheless capable of resilience and positive education activism, which promotes their wellbeing and social outcomes. CONCLUSION: It argues for a shift from harmful approaches of victimising TGD students or treating them only as victims, towards celebrating the contributions of these students to their schools and societies.

Relationship Dissolution and Psychologically Aggressive Dating Relationships: Preliminary Findings From a College-Based Relationship Education Course.

This study evaluated the impact of a relationship education program, delivered as part of a college course, among students (N = 152) who reported experiencing psychological aggression in their exclusive dating relationship. Preliminary results showed that compared to those in the control group, participants receiving relationship education were significantly more likely to end their romantic relationship, even after controlling for relationship satisfaction. Furthermore, when relationship termination occurred, those in the intervention group were significantly more likely to attribute the breakup to their participation in the class as compared to those in the control group. The tentative findings are an important preliminary step in assessing the benefits of relationship education in reducing the risk of psychological aggression among college students.

Gender-Based Violence following Social Media Acquaintance in Nigeria.

In Nigeria, the growth in mobile phone use has provided the opportunity for increased access to the internet, and through this, the social media. The social media in turn offers tremendous communication benefits but also results in some undesirable consequences. One of such is the experience of Gender-Based Violence (GBV). Internet searches using Google Search and Google Scholar in addition to information available to the authors from news media is reported in this study. Five cases were selected for reporting. All cases selected had first contact with their perpetrator(s) on Facebook. The perpetrators were usually men, older than the victims (24-34 years for perpetrators compared with 17-25 years for the victims). The victims experienced physical, psychological, sexual and economic violence from their aggressors. One case resulted in the death of the victim, while two required hospitalization following severe trauma. Three of the victims were raped, while rape was attempted for the other two cases. GBV associated with acquaintances made on social media channels is emerging as a new social problem in Nigeria. Interventions to educate female social media users about this potential danger are urgently necessary.

[Domestic and sexual violence against women. Implications of WHO guidelines for Germany]. / Häusliche und sexuelle Gewalt gegen Frauen. Implikationen der WHO-Leitlinien für Deutschland.

Domestic violence and sexual violence are widespread and have serious health effects for those affected. If the problem is identified and confidence in responding exists, healthcare providers can make a significant contribution to support and intervention. In 2013 the WHO published evidence-based guidelines for responding to the issue in healthcare, training of healthcare providers and health policy. In principle, the guidelines confirm existing recommendations, best-practice guidelines and handbooks. They also encourage a review and further development-for example, regarding the issue of sexual violence. If and how the present recommendations are put into practice in healthcare and training of healthcare staff can currently be looked at only with the use of examples, given the lack of data in Germany. Examples from Berlin show that implementation is quite possible. However, there is a lack of clear mandate, of sustainability and of obligation. Existing good practice models are highly reliant on organisations' and employees' commitment. For Germany, the WHO guidelines indicate the need to develop national standards for healthcare in cases of domestic and sexual violence. A (legal) obligation for the healthcare system should be drawn up. A systematic embedding in training curricula of health care professions is needed. Quality assurance and a systematic evaluation of the practical implementation are required.

Alternativas de seguridad de una población víctima de desplazamiento forzado: el caso de la comuna 8 de Medellín / Security choices of a population, victim of forced displacement: the case of the 8th commune in medellin

¿Es posible que poblaciones que viven en condiciones socioeconómicas precarias y en contextos violentos, puedan proveer se una seguridad diferente a la ofrecida por el Estado y por actores armados ilegales? Es la pregunta que responde este artículo, con base en la investigación realizada en Medellín, con población víctima de desplazamiento forzado de la comuna 8, que trabaja con enfoque de seguridad humana y metodología desde abajo. Analiza las políticas de seguridad del Estado, contrastándo las con las iniciativas comunitarias para enfrentar sus inseguridades mediante estrategias de acción y agendas comunitarias para proveer seguridad humana y conformarse como ciudadanos y colectivos sociales empoderados políticamente. Seña la limitaciones y potencialidades de una propuesta de seguridad aplicada por un grupo poblacional altamente vulnerado y vulnerable.

Is it possible that populations living in precarious socio-economic conditions and in violent contexts, can provide a different security from that offered by the State and illegal armed actors? It is the question that this article answers, based on a research carried out inMedellin, with victims of forced displacement of the Commune 8, which works with a focus on human security and methodology from the bottom. It analyzes the policies of the State security, contrasting them against the community initiatives in order to address their insecurities through action strategies and community agendas and thus provide human security and settle as citizens and social collectives empowered politically. It points out limitations and potentialities of a proposal of security applied by a highly violated and vulnerable population group.

A feasibility study to assess the effectiveness of safe dates for teen mothers.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of the adapted Safe Dates curriculum as an intervention for pregnant and/or parenting teens to prevent teen dating violence (TDV). DESIGN: This pre-/posttest, single-sample study provided a means to assess the effectiveness of an adapted Safe Dates curriculum for teen mothers. SETTING: The adapted Safe Dates curriculum was implemented in three schools designed for the unique needs of teens who are pregnant and/or parenting. PARTICIPANTS: The final sample of 41 teen participants, with a mean age of 16.27, completed 80% of the curriculum and two of the three assessments. Most of the teens were pregnant during participation in the curriculum, and six had infants between age 1 and 3 months. METHODS: The teen mothers completed the pretest, participated in the 10-session adapted Safe Dates curriculum, and completed the posttest at the end of the program and 1 month after program completion. The pre/posttest was adapted from the Safe Dates curriculum-specific evaluation instrument. Senior, undergraduate nursing students were trained in and implemented the curriculum. RESULTS: Participation in the adapted Safe Dates program yielded significant differences in the areas of responses to anger, gender stereotyping, awareness of resources for perpetrators and victims, and psychological violence perpetration. CONCLUSIONS: This adapted program may be effective in changing selected outcomes. The implementation of a larger scale, experimental/control group study may demonstrate the program's efficacy at reducing the incidence of TDV among teen mothers.

Police officers' collaboration with rape victim advocates: barriers and facilitators.

Secondary victimization may occur when rape victims make police reports. This can compromise the quality of official statements and jeopardize criminal cases. Rape reporters receive better treatment by police officers when advocates are involved and best practice police work includes such collaboration. Studies of advocates have described tension, role confusion, and poor communication with police officers. Many variables, including rape myth acceptance (RMA) and training on sexual assault dynamics, may affect officers' collaboration with advocates. There were 429 police officers who responded to a survey measuring their victim interviewing skill, formal training about rape, years on the job, number of victims known personally, number of recent rape cases, RMA, and collaboration with advocates. Results suggest that officers' interviewing skill, years on the job, and specific training are related to collaboration with victim advocates on rape cases. Professional, rather than personal, variables were most predictive of collaboration. Implications for officer selection and training are explored.

Enfoque multidisciplinar de la exploración del abuso sexual infantil / Multidisciplinary approach in the exploration of child sexual abuse

La victimización sexual en la infancia es un problema de considerable magnitud, para el que los profesionales no siempre se encuentran adecuadamente preparados. Una correcta evaluación de estos casos implica considerar indicadores físicos y psicológicos, relativos al menor víctima, así como los factores de riesgo social, vinculados al entorno familiar. Los hallazgos físicos son escasos, si bien constituyen una de las pruebas más objetivas de la experiencia de abuso sexual. Los indicadores conductuales que incluyen la conducta sexualizada y la sintomatología postraumática, así como los índices de veracidad del relato del menor son los principales aspectos psicológicos a evaluar. La existencia de abusos previos en las figuras parentales del menor víctima es un factor de riesgo social que debe considerarse. La exploración del abuso sexual infantil supone un reto para cualquier profesional, que debe afrontarse desde un equipo multidisciplinar con la adecuada formación y experiencia(AU)

Sexual victimization in childhood is a major social problem for which professionals are not always adequately prepared. Evaluation of these cases involves considering physical and psychological indicators related to the child victim as well as social risk factors linked to the family environment. Despite physical findings being scarce, they constitute one of the most objective evidence of sexual abuse experience. Behavioral indicators −including sexualized behavior and posttraumatic symptomatology− are the main psychological aspects to undergo evaluation. Assessment of the veracity of sexual abuse allegations is also important. The presence of previous abuse in the parental figures of the child victim is a social risk factor to be considered. The exploration of child sexual abuse represents a challenge for any professional that needs to be addressed by a multidisciplinary team with appropriate training and experience(AU)

Perceptions of the self and most people’s reactions towards innocent and non innocent victims

Research has shown that: individuals positively distinguish themselves from most other people; being consistent is positively valued; injunctive and descriptive norms are perceived to protect victims. Joining these findings, we argue that individuals present themselves as following injunctive and descriptive norms towards victims to a higher extent and more consistently than most people. In an experimental study 273 university students of both sexes indicated what they and most other people would approve of (injunctive norm) or typically do (descriptive norm) regarding various reactions towards either an innocent or a noninnocent victim. The reactions involved secondary victimization (devaluation/ derogation, avoidance, suffering minimization, blaming the victim) and non secondary victimization (valuation, contact, suffering acknowledgment, not blaming the victim). Participants perceived themselves and most people as approving of more non secondary than secondary victimization reactions, except for blaming the noninnocent victim. Participants indicated they approved of most of the normative reactions to a higher extent than most people, which is interpreted as a new instance of the Primus Inter Pares effect. Participants also indicated they would show more consistency between their injunctive and descriptive norms, especially towards the innocent victim. Results suggest that individuals perceive themselves as more immune to perverse norms than most people (AU)

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