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During foraging, stingless bees are at risk of pesticide contamination from treated field crops. Frieseomellita varia workers, for example, frequently visit pepper plants that are often treated with the herbicide clomazone (CLZ), the fungicide difenoconazole (DFZ), and the insecticide abamectin (ABM). These pesticides pose a threat not only to adult bees but also to larvae when the chemicals are brought back to the nest. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of sublethal concentrations of CLZ, DFZ, and ABM on the expression of stress marker proteins (HSP70AB and HSP83), detoxification enzymes (CYP9Q3, CYP6SA4, and CYTP450), and antimicrobial peptides (abaecin and defen-1) genes in F. varia larvae. First instar larvae were incubated for 48 h in ELISA plates, divided into five groups: Naive (control), acetone (acetone control), CLZ (0.014 ng a.i./µL), DFZ (0.0098 ng a.i./µL), and ABM (0.007 ng a.i./µL). After incubation, total RNA was extracted and analyzed by RT-qPCR to quantify transcript levels. While larval survival was unaffected, significant changes in gene expression patterns were observed. ABM exposure increased HSP70AB expression and decreased HSP83 expression. No changes in CYTP6SA4 expression were detected in bees exposed to any of the pesticides. DFZ suppressed CYP9Q3 expression, while ABM upregulated CYTP450 expression. Notably, the antimicrobial peptide gene abaecin was downregulated by all three compounds, whereas defen-1 expression increased in response to ABM. These findings suggest that sublethal concentrations of these pesticides can significantly alter the expression of genes associated with stress response, detoxification, and immunity in F. varia larvae. The disruption caused by herbicides and fungicides, alongside the known effects of insecticides, may impact bee physiology and colony homeostasis, with potentially unknown consequences for the survival of stingless bees in their natural environment.

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Bees play a critical role as pollinators in ecosystem services, contributing significantly to the sexual reproduction and diversity of plants. The Caatinga biome in Brazil, home to around 200 bee species, provides an ideal habitat for these species due to its unique climate conditions. However, this biome faces threats from anthropogenic processes, making it urgent to characterise the local bee populations efficiently. Traditional taxonomic surveys for bee identification are complex due to the lack of suitable keys and expertise required. As a result, molecular barcoding has emerged as a valuable tool, using genome regions to compare and identify bee species. However, little is known about Caatinga bees to develop these molecular tools further. This study addresses this gap, providing an updated list of 262 Caatinga bee species across 86 genera and identifying ~ 40 primer sets to aid in barcoding these species. The findings highlight the ongoing work needed to fully characterise the Caatinga biome's bee distribution and species or subspecies to support more effective monitoring and conservation efforts.

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The composition of the gut microbiota in animals can be influenced by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in the host, such as diet, physiological state, and genetics. This study aimed to compare the structural composition of the gut microbiota of Apis mellifera bees from two distinct Brazilian biomes, the Atlantic Forest and the Caatinga, using high throughput 16 S rRNA sequencing. We identified a core microbiota composed of seven genera present in all samples: Lactobacillus, Commensalibacter, Rhizobiaceae, Snodgrassella, Gilliamella, Orbaceae and Bifidobacterium. These taxa accounted for 63% of all bacterial genera in the dataset. Interestingly, we observed a significantly differential abundance of the genus Apibacter between bees from the two biomes, with a marked increase in bees from Atlantic Forest. However, the overall variance in the gut structural composition attributable to landscape type, while significant, was relatively low. Notably, none of the members of the core microbiota were differently abundant between the biomes. Understanding the magnitude of landscape-associated effects on the microbiota of bees in different biomes is crucial for the accurate assessment of the impact of anthropogenic factors. These findings provide important insights into the resilience and adaptability of the honey bee gut microbiome across contrasting environments, contributing to the development of conservation and sustainable management strategies for these essential pollinators.

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Invasive species pose a critical threat to ecosystems, with far-reaching consequences. Invasive plants can directly interact with native pollinators, while wind-pollinated grasses indirectly alter plant-pollinator networks by reshaping the composition of plant and animal communities, diminishing ecosystem functioning. Here, we investigated the effect of invasive grass on pollinator richness, native plant visits, and the structure of plant-pollinator networks. Additionally, we explored the influence of non-native honeybees on these same variables in the Caatinga. Invasive grass negatively affected native pollinators and reduced visitation to native plants. The dominance of invasive grass leads to an increased niche overlap among native pollinators. Surprisingly, this did not affect the number of visits by non-native honeybees. However, the increased honeybee visitation negatively impacted native pollinator richness, causing a 60% decline. Our results underscore the compounded negative effects of invasive grass and non-native honeybees on native plant-pollinator dynamics. Invasive grasses indirectly decrease pollinator visits by altering plant communities. Meanwhile, honeybees, unaffected by invasive grass, decrease native pollinator species' richness and visitation rates. These findings emphasize the significant impact of biological invasions on ecosystem health, shedding light on the complex interplay between invasive species and plant-pollinator interactions in arid, abandoned landscapes.

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The Melipona fasciculata popularly known as Tiúba, is a specie of stingless bee that is distributed in the north of Brazil, over-represented in Maranhão State. This bee is of great importance to stingless bees (SLB) beekeepers, as it produces a large quantity of honey with an excellent taste. The genetic diversity of the Tiúba populations was examined with molecular approach using the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) marker. A total of 30 samples from cities in Maranhão State were analysed for the mtDNA intergenic region located between the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI). The molecular analyses identified 8 haplotypes, 3 of which are shared between locations, where the commercialization of beehives is very common and the commercialization of beehives is very common. The populations of Imperatriz and São Bento have the highest diversity indices, and the neutrality tests showed that the populations might be expansion. The fixation index of the study populations showed a high differentiation rate of 0.6218. These Tiúba populations exhibit a high level of genetic structuring, as well as potentially being in a population expansion phase.

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This study investigated essential and potentially toxic elements in beehive products from stingless bee, including pollen, geopropolis, propolis, sambura, and wax. A 32 experimental design was employed to assess the sample decomposition, using dissolved organic carbon and residual acidity as the evaluation criteria. Samples (500 mg) were decomposed in a microwave oven with 8 mL of HNO3 (5 mol L-1), and 2 mL of 30 % H2O2, at 220 °C and 500 W for 40 min. Elemental concentrations were measured using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP OES), with Pb levels exceeding ANVISA limits for honey in most samples. The bioaccessibility assay showed no absorption for Ni and Pb but for other elements, ranging from 5.3 % (Fe) to 100 % (Mg). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identified the possibility to evaluate trends of formation of three groups, revealing minor differences among species.

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Native and cultivated plants in the Neotropics benefit from the pollination services provided by stingless bees. The use of neonicotinoid insecticides negatively impacts bee health, even though bees are not their primary targets. This study determined the oral mean lethal concentration (LC50) of thiamethoxam (TMX) after 24 h of exposure for the stingless bee Scaptotrigona postica. Based on the LC50 value (0.11 ng a.i./µL) obtained, two fractions of this value (1/10 and 1/100 LC50) were selected to assess survival time (LT50), as well as to conduct neural morphological and enzymatic analyses. The LC50/100 group had a LT50 of 15 days, compared to 17 days in the control group, while the LC50/10 group survived for 8 days. Morphological analyses revealed increased Kenyon cell spacing and pyknosis in the mushroom bodies after 1, 3, and 6 days of exposure, suggesting that thiamethoxam adversely affects the brain of S. postica. Regarding enzymatic activity, comparisons between the control and the two sublethal concentrations revealed that Carboxylesterase and Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity increased in the abdomens after six days of exposure. GST activity also increased in the bees' heads for the LC50/10 concentration after six days of exposure (Control x TMX group). The enzymatic results suggests that thiamethoxam induces oxidative stress in S. postica. The results presented underscore the necessity of considering stingless bees in regulatory decisions regarding the use of insecticides, ensuring that the risks to this important group of pollinators are adequately assessed.

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Recently, it has been shown that sugar­conditioned honey bees can be biased towards a nectarless dioecious crop as kiwifruit. The challenges for an efficient pollination service in this crop species are its nectarless flowers and its short blooming period. It is known that combined non-sugar compounds (NSCs) present in the floral products of different plants, such as caffeine and arginine, enhance olfactory memory retention in honey bees. Additionally, these NSCs presented in combination with scented food improve pollination activity in nectar crops. Here, we evaluated the effect of kiwifruit mimic-scented sugar solution (KM) on colonies located in this crop by supplementing them either with these NSCs individually (KM + CAF, KM + ARG), or combined (KM + MIX). Our results show an increase in colonies' activity after feeding for all treatments. However, the colonies supplemented with the combined mixture (KM + MIX) collected heavier kiwifruit pollen loads and showed an increasing pollen stored area in their hives compared to the KM-treated control colonies. Unexpectedly, the caffeine-treated colonies showed a decrease in the pollen foraging related responses. These results show a combined effect of NSCs that improves honey bee pollen foraging in a nectarless crop, however this activity is impaired when caffeine is used alone for a nectarless crop.

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Plant reproduction is influenced not only by individual flower characteristics but also by the arrangement of flowers within inflorescences. In bee-pollinated plants with protandrous flowers in vertical acropetal inflorescences - where male fertile flower structures mature before female ones and basal flowers open first (i.e., Darwin's inflorescence configuration) - male-phase flowers are positioned above female-phase flowers. This arrangement benefits from the upward foraging motion of bees, reducing pollen transfer between flowers of the same plant and increasing pollen export. Additionally, female-biased nectar production in these species could reinforce upward bee movement, further reducing self-pollen transfer. We conducted a comparative study of 112 hermaphrodite angiosperm species with temporal separation of male and female reproductive functions (i.e., dichogamy) to explore whether female-biased nectar production is common among bee-pollinated species with Darwin's inflorescence configuration. Our results revealed female-biased nectar production in bee-pollinated species with Darwin's inflorescence configuration. In the absence of bee pollination, species with this type of inflorescence exhibit male-biased nectar production. Gender-biased nectar production is absent in species lacking this inflorescence type. Female-biased nectar production in vertical acropetal inflorescences with protandrous flowers likely evolved independently in different bee-pollinated species to enhance pollen export. Our study emphasizes the need for microevolutionary research on how nectar production patterns adapt to bee pollination in species with Darwin's inflorescence configuration. It also calls for investigation into the developmental biases influencing nectar production in plants with dichogamous flowers.

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Land-use changes have led to natural habitat loss and fragmentation, favoring the occurrence of dominant bee species in agroecosystems. This has raised concerns on the dominance effects in pollination-dependent crops like passion fruits (Passiflora edulis Sims) in tropical regions. That is because dominant bee species might overlap their foraging time with regular pollinators, potentially impairing crop yield. Our aim was to understand how dominant small bees affect regular pollinators of passion fruit flowers and its implications on crop production for smallholder farmers. We sampled bees on farms cropping yellow passion fruits in the Cerrado, the Brazilian savanna, and established pollination exclusion experiments to evaluate the interacting effects of dominance and bee community composition on crop yield. We observed a low frequency of regular pollinators, while dominant floral visitors were highly abundant. Dominant pollinators highly overlapped their foraging activity with regular pollinators through time. Contrary to our expectations, the dominance of native and non-native bee species did not directly affect the occurrence of regular pollinators nor crop yield. However, we found evidence that exploitative competition may indirectly affect pollination by regular pollinators. Manual and bee pollination combined increased fruit quality, highlighting the potential benefits of diverse pollinator communities for sustainable crop production. Our findings emphasize the need for strategies that can improve the quality and abundance of resources in agroecosystems for regular native pollinators to optimize pollination in passion fruits on smallholder farms and reduce dominance effects caused by small floral-visiting bees.

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BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: A striking feature of the karyotypes of stingless bees is the large amount of heterochromatin present in most species. Cytogenomic studies performed in some Meliponini species have suggested that evolutionary events related to the diversification and amplification of satellite DNA families in the heterochromatin may reflect the structuring of phylogenetic clades in this tribe. In this study, we performed a genomic analysis in Frieseomelitta varia to characterize different satDNA families in its genome. We also investigated the presence of the most abundant satDNA family of F. varia in its own chromosomes, in two other Frieseomelitta species, and in other Meliponini genera encompassing the three main clades of Neotropical Meliponini, according to the available molecular phylogeny. METHODS: Genomic analyses were performed using RepeatExplorer2 on the Galaxy platform, and chromosomal investigations were conducted using fluorescent in situ hybridization. RESULTS: Seven satDNA families were recovered, which together totaled an abundance of 11.223% of the analyzed F. varia genomic fraction. The most abundant satDNA family, FvarSat01-306, predominates in the analyzed repetitive fraction (representing around 89%) and was recently amplified and homogenized in almost all the heterochromatin of F. varia. In addition, the data revealed an unprecedented sharing of this satDNA family in the centromeric/pericentromeric heterochromatin among different Meliponini genera, with independent amplifications and loss of this sequence in some taxa. CONCLUSIONS: One family of satellite DNA makes up most of the heterochromatin in this species and is shared with other Meliponini.

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Bees are essential pollinators that contribute to maintaining biodiversity and increasing agricultural production. However, by foraging on agricultural crops, bees may become contaminated with compounds used for pest control. In this study, we exposed bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies to the insecticide imidacloprid (IMD) under field conditions to assess the occurrence of oxidative stress in larvae and pupae and investigate morphological changes in the fat body and midgut of larvae and midgut of adult bees. The apiary area was divided into three groups: control, commercial formulation containing IMD (Evidence® 700WG) (IMDCF), and IMD active ingredient (Sigma-Aldrich) (IMDAI). Treatment groups were fed syrup containing 1 µg L-1 IMD, whereas the control group was fed syrup only. Compared with the control, larvae exposed to IMDCF or IMDAI for 42 days exhibited morphological changes in the external body, midgut, and fat body. The midgut of adult bees contaminated with IMDCF showed only structural remnants of the peritrophic membrane and absence of regenerative cell nests. Oxidative stress analyses revealed that IMDCF-exposed larvae had higher nitrite and carbonylated protein contents and lower catalase and superoxide dismutase activity than control individuals. In pupae, IMDAI decreased catalase activity while increasing superoxide dismutase activity. These findings indicate that IMD has the potential to significantly impact the development of bees and their colonies by disrupting vital organs responsible for normal physiological functioning and overall activities of individuals. Oxidative stress, which was detected at different stages of bee development, may induce lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation, leading to cell death.

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Stingless bees are important pollinators in tropical regions, but their survival and behavior have been impacted by various factors, including exposure to insecticides. Here, we evaluated the lethal and sublethal effects of commercial formulations of two widely used insecticides, flupyradifurone (FPF formulation), and cyantraniliprole (CY formulation), on Melipona beecheii and Nannotrigona perilampoides. The study involved oral exposure of bees to insecticides, calculation of the lethal concentration (LC50) and the lethal time (LT50), and evaluation of walking and flight take-off activities. The LC50 values showed that the largest bee, M. beecheii, was more sensitive than N. perilampoides to both insecticides and that the FPF formulation had faster lethal effects in both species (N. perilampoides, 9.6 h; M. beecheii, 5 h) compared to the effects of the CY formulation (N. perilampoides, 17 h; M. beecheii, 24.7 h). Sublethal concentrations (LC50/10 and LC50/100) of both insecticides affected walking and flight take-off activities. After 6-24 h of exposure, both FPF and CY formulations significantly reduced the mean walking speed of N. perilampoides (0.962-1.402 cm/s) and M. beecheii (2.026-2.589 cm/s) compared to the control groups (N. perilampoides: 1.648-1.941 cm/s; M. beecheii: 2.759-3.471 cm/s). Additionally, the FPF and the CY formulation impaired individual flight take-off in both species. This study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of the lethal and sublethal effects of flupyradifurone and cyantraniliprole on M. beecheii and N. perilampoides, offering valuable information for future research on insecticide toxicity in stingless bees.

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The brain of adult honeybee (Apis mellifera) workers is larger than that of queens, facilitating behavioural differentiation between the castes. This brain diphenism develops during the pharate-adult stage and is driven by a caste-specific gene expression cascade in response to unique hormonal milieus. Previous molecular screening identified minibrain (mnb; DYRK1A) as a potential regulator in this process. Here, we used RNAi approach to reduce mnb transcript levels and test its role on brain diphenism development in honeybees. White-eyed unpigmented cuticle worker pupae were injected with dsRNA for mnb (Mnb-i) or gfp, and their phenotypes were assessed two and 8 days later using classic histological and transcriptomic analyses. After 2 days of the injections, Mnb-i bees showed 98% of downregulation of mnb transcripts. After 8 days, the brain of Mnb-i bees showed reduction in total volume and in the volume of the mushroom bodies (MB), antennal, and optic lobes. Additionally, signs of apoptosis were observed in the Kenyon cells region of the MB, and the cohesion of the brain tissues was affected. Our transcriptomic analyses revealed that 226 genes were affected by the knockdown of mnb transcripts, most of which allowing axonal fasciculation. These results suggest the evolutionary conserved mnb gene has been co-opted for promoting hormone-mediated developmental brain morphological plasticity generating caste diphenism in honeybees.

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A homeopatia é uma medicina alternativa utilizada para tratamento de enfermidades, na área veterinária é utilizada no controle de ectoparasitas. Um dos ectoparasitas que causam grande prejuízo econômico a pecuária brasileira, principalmente ao gado leiteiro é o carrapato-bovino, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. No intuito de contribuir para aplicação de uma terapia alternativa para o controle de ectoparasito R. (B.) microplus em bovinos com aptidão leiteira, a presente pesquisa teve como objetivo, avaliar a eficácia acaricida de um complexo homeopático na contagem de teleóginas, durante o período experimental de 12 meses. O experimento in vivo foi realizado em vacas adultas, raça holandesa e jersey, em diferentes estágios de lactação, oriundas de propriedade de agricultura familiar, sendo composto por dois grupos: grupo controle, constituído por dez animais não tratados com formulação homeopática; e grupo tratado, constituído por dez animais tratados com 10g de formulação homeopática animal/dia, fornecido juntamente com o alimento após a ordenha. Observou-se que a formulação homeopática auxilia no tratamento e controle de infestações em vacas criadas em propriedades com histórico de resistência parasitária, assim como manejo limitado de pastagem.

Homeopathy is an alternative medicine used to treat diseases, in the veterinary area it is used to control ectoparasites. One of the ectoparasites that cause great economic damage to Brazilian livestock, mainly to dairy cattle is the tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. In order to contribute to the application of an alternative therapy for the control of ectoparasite R. (B.) microplus in dairy cattle, the present research aimed to evaluate the mite-killing efficacy of a homeopathic complex in the count of teleogens during the 12-month trial period. The in vivo experiment was carried out on adult holstein and jersey cows, in different stages of lactation, from three family farms, consisting of two groups: control group, consisting of ten animals not treated with homeopathic formulation; and treated group, consisting of ten animals treated with 10g of animal homeopathic formulation/day, supplied together with the food after milking. It was observed that the homeopathic formulation helps in the treatment and control of infestations in cows raised on properties with a history of parasitic resistance, as well as limited grazing management.

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Pollination service is a global issue with significant impacts on ecosystem maintenance and food production. The decline of bees has highlighted the importance of public awareness and conservation policies to ensure food security and the sustainable use of such services. In this study, we investigated the awareness about bee diversity and pollination services among young students in a medium-sized city in the Cerrado region, the main agricultural frontier in Central Brazil. We applied questionnaires and multiple correspondence analyses to evaluate students' information on the subject, in three middle schools in Uberlândia-MG. Honeybees, a non-native species in Brazil, were the most cited bee by students (47.8%). While most students believed that bees should be protected (93.14%), only 66.66% recognized their importance to humans. Although 72.28% of the participants claimed to know what pollination is, nearly half of them (49%) did not fully understand the process and considered it unimportant for people's lives. Participants who recognized solitary native bees showed a better understanding of the pollination process. Our findings indicate that schools, the internet, and television are the main sources of information on bees for young students in Central Brazil. Understanding people's perception of bees can guide environmental education and citizen science projects and inform decision-making for biodiversity conservation actions. In this article, we identify essential elements for teaching a holistic view of bees and pollination promoting the comprehension of their importance.

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Assessing plant-pollinator relationships often employs a snapshot approach to describe the complexity and dynamic involving species interactions. However, this framework overlooks the nuanced changes in species composition, their interactions, and the underlying drivers of such variations. This is particularly evident on less explored temporal scales, such as the dynamic decision-making processes occurring within hours throughout the day. To address these gaps, in this study, we evaluated the temporal and environmental factors shaping the change of species and interactions (beta diversity) between bees and plants throughout the day in a coastal environment in Mexico. In general, we found that the changes in species composition of bees and plants were mainly associated with species turnover throughout the day, while the principal component of changes in interaction composition was interaction rewiring (reassembling of pairwise bee-plant interactions). This was mainly because a few species (6 of 47 bee species, and 5 of 35 plant species) with many interactions remain permanent most of the day, leading to rewiring being the most important component of beta diversity interaction. While environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity did not significantly drive the compositional dissimilarity of species and interactions, we observed that nearby time intervals have a similar composition of species and interactions. In conclusion, our study emphasizes the importance of considering shorter temporal dynamics in understanding species interactions during the day. These insights deepen our understanding of the intricate dynamics shaping plant-pollinator interactions, providing valuable implications for future studies focused on conservation and management strategies.

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Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (MAPEOs) are considered to be one of the main sources of mercury release into the environment. Considering the gold mining activities, this study evaluated the Hg concentration in 27 apiaries (Apis spp.) in the South of the Legal Amazon, Mato Grosso State, Brazil. A total of 243 samples distributed in 81 samples of bees, 81 beeswax, and 81 of honeys, collected between the months of July and November 2022, were analyzed. One bee sample showed Hg concentration above the limit of quantification (68.8 ng g-1), 27 samples were between the limit of detection and limit of quantification (15 samples of bees, 8 of wax and 4 of honey). In all study areas, trace levels of Hg concentration were detected, 12 near MAPEOs areas and 16 near crop areas. It recorded that the honeys analyzed in this study in Mato Grosso are not contaminated by Hg, not offering any risk to consumers of the product. It is noteworthy that the use of bioindicator tools such as bees, beeswax, and honey is effective in relation to Hg monitoring in apiaries. It can also infer that the implementation of beekeeping in areas that will go through experience the process of environmental recovery, after the mining exploitation, is feasible, in line with permanent biomonitoring of the region.

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Genetic diversity is an important attribute of populations, essential for understanding the ecological and evolutionary processes affecting them and assessing their health status. In Hymenoptera, such as eusocial bees, colony management can influence genetic diversity in both natural and managed populations. Management can impact admixture, increasing the number of alleles due to colony displacement and decreasing the number of alleles in natural populations due to colony extraction. In this study, we analyzed genetic diversity in natural and managed colonies as well as in drone congregations of Scaptotrigona mexicana (Guérin), to assess genetic diversity, patterns of genetic structure and gene flow, and the presence of diploid males. We identified three distinct genetic groups: Northern, Central, and Southern. Although genetic differentiation and limited gene flow among genetic groups were evident, we detected significant gene flow from wild to managed populations, suggesting that natural populations can be an important reservoir of genetic diversity. The highest genetic diversity was found in the Northern group, composed of managed localities. This is likely due to the introduction of new alleles through to colony translocation. Notably, some loci exhibited more than three alleles in localities where all analyzed individuals were from the same colony, indicating possible polyandry in the species. We also detected diploid males, which suggests inbreeding and/or inefficient mechanisms for their elimination from the colony. Our results provide an initial assessment of genetic diversity in both natural and managed populations, as well as in drone congregations of S. mexicana.

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The Meliponini tribe is the most diverse group of social bees, thriving across tropical regions. Breeding stingless bees (meliponiculture) holds significant ecological and economic value. In meliponaries, multiple species often share small foraging areas, a scenario less common in natural environments. Due to deforestation, stingless bees face a diminishing availability of natural nesting sites, which are often found in hollow tree trunks. Consequently, meliponaries serve as a crucial nesting resource. In this study, we examined whether Melipona scutellaris and Tetragonisca angustula share pollen resources when reared closely together in high-density nest environment at the RCCO Meliponary in Aldeia, Camaragibe, and Pernambuco, which could potentially lead to competition. Our findings indicate that these bee species utilize different pollen sources, being Araceae type 1, Mimosoideae type 1, Asteraceae type 1, and Myrtaceae type 1 the most important for differentiating between groups. Their daily activity periods outside the nest differ, leading to varying responses to changes in temperature and humidity. The results suggest that competition for pollen resources may not be a significant issue between the two bee species in such situations.