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Recently, it has been shown that sugar­conditioned honey bees can be biased towards a nectarless dioecious crop as kiwifruit. The challenges for an efficient pollination service in this crop species are its nectarless flowers and its short blooming period. It is known that combined non-sugar compounds (NSCs) present in the floral products of different plants, such as caffeine and arginine, enhance olfactory memory retention in honey bees. Additionally, these NSCs presented in combination with scented food improve pollination activity in nectar crops. Here, we evaluated the effect of kiwifruit mimic-scented sugar solution (KM) on colonies located in this crop by supplementing them either with these NSCs individually (KM + CAF, KM + ARG), or combined (KM + MIX). Our results show an increase in colonies' activity after feeding for all treatments. However, the colonies supplemented with the combined mixture (KM + MIX) collected heavier kiwifruit pollen loads and showed an increasing pollen stored area in their hives compared to the KM-treated control colonies. Unexpectedly, the caffeine-treated colonies showed a decrease in the pollen foraging related responses. These results show a combined effect of NSCs that improves honey bee pollen foraging in a nectarless crop, however this activity is impaired when caffeine is used alone for a nectarless crop.

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Land-use changes have led to natural habitat loss and fragmentation, favoring the occurrence of dominant bee species in agroecosystems. This has raised concerns on the dominance effects in pollination-dependent crops like passion fruits (Passiflora edulis Sims) in tropical regions. That is because dominant bee species might overlap their foraging time with regular pollinators, potentially impairing crop yield. Our aim was to understand how dominant small bees affect regular pollinators of passion fruit flowers and its implications on crop production for smallholder farmers. We sampled bees on farms cropping yellow passion fruits in the Cerrado, the Brazilian savanna, and established pollination exclusion experiments to evaluate the interacting effects of dominance and bee community composition on crop yield. We observed a low frequency of regular pollinators, while dominant floral visitors were highly abundant. Dominant pollinators highly overlapped their foraging activity with regular pollinators through time. Contrary to our expectations, the dominance of native and non-native bee species did not directly affect the occurrence of regular pollinators nor crop yield. However, we found evidence that exploitative competition may indirectly affect pollination by regular pollinators. Manual and bee pollination combined increased fruit quality, highlighting the potential benefits of diverse pollinator communities for sustainable crop production. Our findings emphasize the need for strategies that can improve the quality and abundance of resources in agroecosystems for regular native pollinators to optimize pollination in passion fruits on smallholder farms and reduce dominance effects caused by small floral-visiting bees.

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Plant reproduction is influenced not only by individual flower characteristics but also by the arrangement of flowers within inflorescences. In bee-pollinated plants with protandrous flowers in vertical acropetal inflorescences - where male fertile flower structures mature before female ones and basal flowers open first (i.e., Darwin's inflorescence configuration) - male-phase flowers are positioned above female-phase flowers. This arrangement benefits from the upward foraging motion of bees, reducing pollen transfer between flowers of the same plant and increasing pollen export. Additionally, female-biased nectar production in these species could reinforce upward bee movement, further reducing self-pollen transfer. We conducted a comparative study of 112 hermaphrodite angiosperm species with temporal separation of male and female reproductive functions (i.e., dichogamy) to explore whether female-biased nectar production is common among bee-pollinated species with Darwin's inflorescence configuration. Our results revealed female-biased nectar production in bee-pollinated species with Darwin's inflorescence configuration. In the absence of bee pollination, species with this type of inflorescence exhibit male-biased nectar production. Gender-biased nectar production is absent in species lacking this inflorescence type. Female-biased nectar production in vertical acropetal inflorescences with protandrous flowers likely evolved independently in different bee-pollinated species to enhance pollen export. Our study emphasizes the need for microevolutionary research on how nectar production patterns adapt to bee pollination in species with Darwin's inflorescence configuration. It also calls for investigation into the developmental biases influencing nectar production in plants with dichogamous flowers.

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The success of pollen-pistil interaction in Mauritia flexuosa (buriti), a palm adapted to the humid ecosystems, 'veredas', within the Cerrado, is influenced by intrinsic and environmental factors. Its supra-annual flowering, dioecy, and adverse climate conditions pose challenges for fertilization, therefore information on floral biology is essential. This study aimed to ascertain stigma receptivity, and elucidate structural, cytochemical, and ultrastructural aspects of the pollen-pistil relationship. Flowers were analysed at intervals post-anthesis (hpa) and post-pollination (hpp). A stigma receptivity test was performed using H2O2 solution. Pistil samples were processed for anatomical, histochemical, and electron microscopy evaluation. The stigma is wet and papillate type, with subepidermis containing sclerenchyma connected to vascular bundles. Stigma receptivity lasts around 36 hpa. The pollen tube penetrates the papilla at 2 hpp and develops in the symplast, towards the stylar canal. The papillae have loose cell walls that facilitate the secretion and contain a rich population of organelles, including large peroxisomes. Fertilization occurs 24 hpp, and during this period the stigma surface is free of pathogens. The vascular connection to the pistil surface favours the germination of pollen grains. The pistil has a strong protective system until fertilization occurs. The symplastic growth of the pollen tube in the stigma and the efficient secretory apparatus of the pistil contribute to rapid fertilization. These structural characteristics and secretion dynamics enhance reproduction of buriti, even with supra-annual flowering and in semiarid conditions.

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Color and morphology are some of the most intriguing traits of plant galls, whose patterns resemble fruits and flowers. Many hypotheses were proposed to explain the involvement of anthocyanin accumulation with the development of red gall hues, whose mechanisms seem idiosyncratic. Anthocyanins are related to photoprotective strategies in green tissues and metal accumulation in some flowers. Despite that, the combination of such physiological phenomena has been neglected for galls, which are photosynthetic neoplasms genetically similar to reproductive organs. Here, we integrated different perspectives by measuring photosynthetic pigment and anthocyanin concentration combined with fluorescence quenching analysis, antioxidant activity assays, and histochemical elemental mapping in red and green galls induced by Espinosa nothofagi (Hymenoptera) on Nothofagus obliqua (Nothofagaceae). We found no relationship between high anthocyanin concentrations, light exposure, and red coloration in galls as anthocyanin concentrations were higher in the outermost tissues of green galls than in red galls. Red galls presented higher concentrations of total chlorophyll and lower carotenoid concentrations than green galls and leaves, which correlated with their highest photosynthetic activity and iron accumulation. The red color coincides with the accumulation of aluminum and Fe3+ and the lowest antioxidant capacity in the gall outer tissue. The high antioxidant capacity of N. obliqua galls and the Fe2+ and Fe3+ distribution are related to high photosynthesis, Fe-use efficiency in galls, and the supply of Fe to the inducer diet. Overall, iron metabolism connects the high photosynthesis activity to the red gall color in the presence of low anthocyanin concentrations, like some flowers.

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Calafate is a native barberry of Patagonia, used in culinary and medicinal practices since ancient times. The aim of this work was to analyze the ability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from calafate fruits and flowers, to increase the phenolic compound concentration and antioxidant capacity as well as to inhibit metabolic-related enzymes in fermented calafate juices. The sensory attributes of the selected fermented juice were also analyzed. The LAB strains grew between 1.33 ± 0.03 and 2.61 ± 0.30 log CFU/ml in the calafate juices at 24 h. Fructobacillus fructosus B7 consumed glucose and fructose the most (2.30 ± 0.45 g/L and 3.73 ± 0.44 g/L, respectively) and produced mannitol (3.89 ± 0.77 g/L). The fermented juice by Lacticaseibacillus paracasei B4 showed the highest total phenolic compound concentration (2662.58 ± 344.51 mg GAE/100 ml) and antioxidant capacity (38916.42 ± 2157.52 µmol TE/100 ml). The fermented juices inhibited the activity of metabolic syndrome-related enzymes. The lower IC50 for α-glucosidase activity was observed for F. fructosus B7 and L. paracasei B4 (0.56 ± 0.10 and 0.64 ± 0.05 mg GAE/ml, respectively) fermented juices, while for α-amylase the lowest IC50 values were determined for the L. curvatus B34 and L. paracasei B4 (0.34 ± 0.01 and 0.37 ± 0.06 mg GAE/ml, respectively) juices. The relative amount of isorhamnetins, which can induce GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane preventing hyperglycemia, was increased in the L. paracasei B4 fermented juice. The L. paracasei B4 fermented juice had acceptable sensorial values for consumption.

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Aiming to verify whether the diversity of secretory structures with their respective exudates are or not responsible for the attendance of floral visitors in Miconia species, the floral secretory structures of two Amazonian species of Miconia were described and interpreted from the functional perspectives and observations of floral visitors. Flowers and floral visitors were collected in the field for 16 months. The flowers were subjected to standard anatomical analyzes using light and scanning electron microscopy, and the secretory structures were evaluated using histochemical tests. The insects were photographed, collected and identified by a specialist. Floral secretory structures (stigmatic papillae and trichomes at the apex of the ovary) were found in M. alata and M. ciliata. Trichomes were found at the hypanthium of M. alata, and of the sepals and receptacles in M. ciliata. In both species, different hydrophilic compounds were detected in the exudates. Only phenolic compounds were found in the trichomes of the M. ciliata receptacle. This study provides information that confirms the hypothesis that other secretory structures and exudates are related to floral visitors, and adds new informations about the features of the secretory structures in Miconia.

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Nearly half of the bee species can perform a fascinating stereotyped behavior to collect pollen grains by vibrating flowers, known as buzz pollination. During the floral visit, these bees mechanically transfer the vibrations produced by their thoracic indirect flight muscles to the flower anther, inducing the movement of the pollen grains and leading them to be released through a small pore or slit placed at the tip of the anther in poricidal flowers. In such flowers, pollen release is affected by the vibrational behavior of buzzing bees, primarily their duration and velocity amplitude. However, we know little about how poricidal anther morphology may influence it. In this work, we investigated through a theoretical and numerical point of view the buzz pollination process considering a typical poricidal anther of a tomato flower (Solanum lycopersicum), which in our work will be approached by a rectangular billiard, experiencing vibrations applied by a bumblebee (Bombus terrestris). Our primary goals in this paper are (i) to understand the mechanism behind the pollen release in this model, (ii) to observe some scale effects associated with morphological variations of the anther (as pore size and anther shape), and (iii) analyze how these results are related to natural buzz pollination systems.

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Night-blooming cacti, primarily pollinated by bats and hawkmoths, also attract beetles seeking food and safe shelter for mating and brooding their offspring. The influence of flower density on beetle visitation rates remains unclear, with responses varying by species and environmental factors. In the Caatinga Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest, we studied the flower occupancy distribution of two beetle species, Cyclocephala paraguayensis and Nitops aff. pilosocerei, in Pilosocereus pachycladus cacti. Our findings indicate that both beetle species act as commensals with minimal impact on effective pollination. They forage for nectar and pollen without causing damage to pistils or ovaries. N. aff. pilosocerei was more abundant than C. paraguayensis, and their distributions significantly differed, with N. aff. pilosocerei displaying a more uniform spread. Instances of both species occupying the same flower were more frequent than exclusive occupation. Nitops aff. pilosocerei abundance exhibited spatial autocorrelation. Flower height and beetle species influenced the total number of beetles within flowers. Future studies should explore the impact of cactus flower distribution on beetle abundance with other species, conduct selective pollination experiments to determine their role as pollinators, and investigate how flower-beetle interaction systems are affected by flower and individual distribution in processes like florivory and pollination.

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This study aims to analyze the configuration of inequalities in one of Argentina's most significant production zones for fresh vegetables and cut flowers, located in Greater La Plata, Buenos Aires Province. This ongoing anthropological research, initiated in 2021, employs methods such as participant observation, interviews, food mapping, and digital ethnography. Among the main findings, we highlight that this production zone exhibits, in both its origins and daily operations, certain racist dynamics that are not solely generated by the host society toward migrants but are disseminated throughout the social fabric, including by migrant producers themselves. Positive valuations of ultra-processed foods by those living and working in the area reflect the importance of belonging to the host society, running parallel to strategies for preserving food preparations from before migration. These include the recreation of a "food identity" and the proliferation of "legumbrerías" (legume shops) and "paisano eateries" (restaurants serving traditional food). These transformations are intertwined with the productive changes migrants have experienced, shifting from peasant economies in their places of origin to intensive production in Greater La Plata.

Este trabajo propone analizar la configuración de las desigualdades en uno de los cordones de producción de hortalizas en fresco y flores de corte más importantes de Argentina, localizado en el Gran La Plata, provincia de Buenos Aires. Se trata de una investigación en curso con enfoque antropológico, realizada desde el año 2021, en la que se emplearon técnicas como la observación participante, entrevistas, mapeos alimentarios y etnografía digital. Entre los principales hallazgos destacamos que este cordón productivo posee en su génesis y cotidiano, ciertas dinámicas racistas, que no son únicamente generadas desde la sociedad receptora a la migrante, sino que se propagan por todo el tejido social, incluso ejercidas por los productores migrantes. Las valoraciones positivas de quienes habitan y trabajan allí en torno a los alimentos ultraprocesados están cargadas de la importancia de pertenecer a la sociedad receptora, en paralelo a estrategias de resguardo de preparaciones previas a migrar: la recreación de un "nosotros alimentario" y la proliferación de "legumbrerías" y "comedores paisanos". Estas transformaciones se enlazan con los cambios productivos que atravesaron las personas migrantes desde economías campesinas en su lugar de origen, a la producción intensiva en el Gran La Plata.

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Understanding the mechanisms that enable species coexistence is a central question in ecology, as it helps to comprehend species diversity. One of the most common stabilizing mechanisms of coexistence is niche segregation, which can prevent the competitive exclusion of the fittest competitor. Niche segregation can manifest itself at various temporal and spatial scales, allowing provide essential insights into understanding the stabilizing mechanisms facilitating the coexistence of species. We assessed coexistence patterns among flower-dwelling spiders in two ways, in the first set of analyses, we investigated the factors influencing the quantity of spider individuals and species. The second approach we investigate the spatio-temporal segregation between species, effectively examining the coexistence patterns. We observed that the presence of inflorescences per plant, the number of flowers per inflorescence, and the presence of EFNs play a significant role in increasing spider abundance and richness. We find only a marginal seasonal effect, suggesting that spiders have constant access to resources throughout the year. Our niche overlap analysis demonstrated synchrony in the spatial occupation of niches by different spider species. The coexistence patterns appeared to be unaffected by the number of inflorescences. The greater number of inflorescences will enable a greater availability of niches, and consequently more abundance and richness of species of spiders the plant can sustain. Our results suggest that, to mitigate the adverse consequences of competitive interactions, spiders tend to adopt spatial partitioning as a strategy to facilitate the coexistence of spiders living in reproductive structures on plants in the Brazilian savanna.

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The variation within and across species has afterlife effects on carbon and nutrient cycling through the alteration of litter decomposability. However, the focus on leaves may not reflect a whole-plant economic spectrum of strategies. Here, we assessed the patterns and predictors of flower and leaf-litter decomposition at the intra- (i.e., flowers and leaves of the same species) and inter-specific (i.e., flowers and leaves from different species) levels for 29 tropical woody species in northeast Brazil. We evaluated nine functional litter traits, including structural and chemical traits. Flower litter decomposed, on average, three times faster than leaf litter (11.9% and 39.4% mass remaining, respectively) and exhibited higher water-holding capacity (WHC), leaching (LEA), and N, P, and K content. Otherwise, leaf litter showed higher density (DEN) and Ca, Mg, and Na content. The average relative differences in decomposition rate and functional traits between flower and leaf litter did not differ at both intra- and inter-specific levels. The predictors of decomposition were mostly similar, explaining 39% and 37% of flower and leaf litter, respectively. Leaching, P, Ca, Mg, and Na predict both flower and leaf-litter decomposition. However, WHC exclusively predicted flower-litter decomposition, and DEN, N, and K exclusively predicted leaf-litter decomposition. The observed differences in decomposition rate and functional traits between flower and leaf litter indicate that the afterlife effects differ between these plant organs and leverage the role of flower litter and its secondary consequences to nutrient and carbon cycling on ecosystems.

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Orchids offer a variety of floral rewards to pollinators. In many orchid groups, however, the transfer of pollen is based on food-deception, as in the case of Laelia (including Schomburgkia s.s.), a genus assigned to the Neotropical subtribe Laeliinae. Here, we report on the reproductive biology of a Brazilian member of this subtribe, namely, Laelia gloriosa, occurring in the forested areas of southeastern Brazil. The study includes analyses of floral morphology, histochemistry, and the chemical analysis of floral rewards and scents. Pollinators and pollination mechanism data were collected in the field by means of focal observations. Analyses of breeding systems and the percentage of potentially viable seed were also recorded. The floral morphology of Laelia gloriosa indicates that this species is melittophilous. The flowers release a citrus-like fragrance that attracts many species of bee. The flowers offer waxy material as a reward, and this is collected exclusively by Meliponini bees. Several bee species visit the flowers. However, those of L. gloriosa are pollinated exclusively by Trigona spinipes. Pollinaria are deposited on the bee's scutellum. Plants of the studied population were entirely self-compatible, but pollinator-dependent. The frequency of visits to these flowers was greater than in rewardless Laeliinae. Our study provides the first evidence of lipoidal substances as a resource in Laeliinae. The discovery that an orchid species (Laelia gloriosa) of this subtribe, hitherto considered to be entirely pollinated by nectar-seeking pollinators, offers a floral waxy material and provides new insights into the evolution of this important subtribe.

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PREMISE: Agriculture expansion, livestock, and global change have transformed biological communities and altered, through aerosols and direct deposition, N:P balance in soils of inter-Andean valleys, potentially affecting flowering phenology of many species and thereby flowering synchrony and plant reproduction. METHODS: We evaluated the influence of variation in temperature and moisture along the local elevational gradient and treatments with the addition of N and P and grazing on flowering synchrony and reproduction of Croton, a dominant shrub of the inter-Andean dry scrub. Along the elevational gradient (300 m difference between the lowest and highest site), we set up plots with and without grazing nested with four nutrient treatments: control and addition of N or P alone or combined N + P. We recorded the number of female and male flowers in bloom monthly from September 2017 to August 2019 to calculate flowering synchrony. We assessed fruiting, seed mass, and pre-dispersal seed predation. RESULTS: Higher growing-season soil temperatures, which were negatively associated with local elevation and higher nitrogen availability promoted flowering synchrony of Croton, particularly among larger plants. Greater flowering synchrony, high soil temperatures, and addition of N + P resulted in production of more fruits of Croton, but also intensified pre-dispersal seed predation. CONCLUSIONS: Temperature, availability of moisture throughout the elevational gradient, and nutrient manipulation affected flowering synchrony, which subsequently affected production of fruits in Croton. These results emphasize the critical role of current anthropogenic changes in climate and nutrient availability on flowering synchrony and reproduction of Croton, a dominant plant of the inter-Andean scrub.

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The biodiversity of Brazil provides an excellent climate and favorable pollination conditions for Apis mellifera L., especially in the Eastern Amazon region, which boasts vast floral wealth, including an abundance of açaí (Euterpe oleracea) flowers and fruits. In the present study, seven types of honey were evaluated: three containing floral nectar from açaí (Açaí honey) collected in the Eastern Amazon region (Açaí honey from Breu Branco (AH1 and AH2) and Açaí honey from Santa Maria (AH3), both from the state of Pará, Brazil) and four honeys from different regions of Brazil (Aroeira honey from Minas Gerais, Cipó-Uva honey from Distrito Federal, Mangue honey from Pará, and Timbó honey from Rio Grande do Sul). The characteristics of these honeys were evaluated by examining their physicochemical properties, melissopalynological aspects, color, antioxidant potential, and their constituent compounds, which were confirmed through GC-MS analysis. Açaí floral nectar honeys presented physicochemical results similar to those of other honeys, aligning with Brazilian legislation norms, but differed in their high values of free acidity, apparent sugars, and lower reducing sugars, which are directly related to their botanical origin. These differences correlate with unique flavor and distinct aroma characteristics. Melissopalynological analysis confirmed the botanical origin of the honeys containing açaí floral nectar, which had a color range from amber to dark amber. The three açaí honeys demonstrated high antioxidant capacity and superior flavonoid and polyphenol content compared to other honeys, particularly the açaí honey from Breu Branco (AH1), which had four times the content to combat free radicals compared to the honey with the highest potential (Aroeira honey). GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of antioxidant properties as well as potential anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antitumor capabilities in açaí honeys, which have not yet been fully studied.

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PREMISE: Clines-or the geographic sorting of phenotypes across continual space-provide an opportunity to understand the interaction of dispersal, selection, and history in structuring polymorphisms. METHODS: In this study, we combine field-sampling, genetics, climatic analyses, and machine learning to understand a flower color polymorphism in the wide-ranging desert annual Encelia farinosa. RESULTS: We find evidence for replicated transitions in disk floret color from brown to yellow across spatial scales, with the most prominent cline stretching ~100 km from southwestern United States into México. Because population structure across the cline is minimal, selection is more likely than drift to have an important role in determining cline width. CONCLUSIONS: Given that the cline aligns with a climatic transition but there is no evidence for pollinator preference for flower color, we hypothesize that floret color likely varies as a function of climatic conditions.

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Widely documented in animals, behavioural thermoregulation mitigates negative impacts of climate change. Plants experience especially strong thermal variability but evidence for plant behavioural thermoregulation is limited. Along a montane elevation gradient, Argentina anserina flowers warm more in alpine populations than at lower elevation. We linked floral temperature with phenotypes to identify warming mechanisms and documented petal movement and pollinator visitation using time-lapse cameras. High elevation flowers were more cupped, focused light deeper within flowers and were more responsive to air temperature than low; cupping when cold and flattening when warm. At high elevation, a 20° increase in petal angle resulted in a 0.46°C increase in warming. Warming increased pollinator visitation, especially under cooler high elevation temperatures. A plasticity study revealed constitutive elevational differences in petal cupping and stronger temperature-induced floral plasticity in high elevation populations. Thus, plant populations have evolved different behavioural responses to temperature driving differences in thermoregulatory capacity.

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Species traits greatly influence interactions between plants and pollinators where floral nectar is the primary energy source fostering this mutualism. However, very little is known about how nectar traits mediate interactions in pollination networks compared with morphological traits. Here, we evaluated the role of morphological and nectar traits in shaping plant-hummingbird interaction networks along an elevation gradient. For this, we assessed patterns in floral phenotypic traits and network properties of plant species across elevations in Costa Rica. We also analysed whether plant species with generalized flower traits are ecological generalists and how morphological trait matching versus nectar traits affect interactions. We found marked variation in floral phenotypic traits and flower abundance of hummingbird-visited plant species across 10 sites along the elevation gradient. We did not find evidence for a relationship between flower morphology and nectar traits or between morphological and ecological generalization of plant species. Plant-hummingbird interaction frequency increased when the lengths of hummingbird bill and flower corolla were similar, indicating morphological matching, whereas nectar traits were unrelated to interactions. While nectar may play a difficult-to-detect secondary role within plant-hummingbird networks, our results reinforce the idea that morphological matching is an important factor in structuring ecological communities.

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Animal pollination is crucial for the reproduction and economic viability of a wide range of crops. Despite the existing data, the extent to which citrus crops depend on pollinators to guarantee fruit production still needs to be determined. Here, we described the composition of potential pollinators in citrus (Citrus spp.) from the main growing areas of Argentina; moreover, we combined Bayesian models and empirical simulations to assess the contribution of animal pollination on fruit set and yield ha-1 in different species and cultivars of lemons, grapefruits, mandarins, and oranges. Honeybee (A. mellifera L.) was the most commonly observed potential pollinator, followed by a diverse group of insects, mainly native bees. Regardless of citrus species and cultivars, the probability of flowers setting fruit in pollinated flowers was 2.4 times higher than unpollinated flowers. Furthermore, our simulations showed that about 60% of the citrus yield ha-1 can be attributable to animal pollination across all species and cultivars. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain environments that support pollinator diversity and increase consumer and to producer awareness and demand in order to ensure the significant benefits of animal pollination in citrus production.

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Previous studies have determined that Chloroluma gonocarpa (Sapotaceae), is a species that has cryptic dioecy. This type of sexual system is characterized by flowers that are morphologically perfect (both sexual whorls are present) but functionally pistillate or staminate (in each type of flower one of the sexual whorls is non-functional). In C. gonocarpa the pistillate flowers present well-developed stigma, functional ovules, and staminodes, while the staminate flowers present a poorly developed stigma, collapsed ovules, and pollen-producing anthers. In angiosperms, the abortion of sexual organs can occur at different stages of development (from pre-meiosis to post-meiosis), that is why we conducted an anatomical analysis of both flower types at various developmental stages. Using light microscopy, we described the processes of sporogenesis and gametogenesis to establish when the staminate flowers lose their pistillate function. To achieve this, we collected, fixed, and processed the flowers following conventional anatomical techniques for observation under a light microscope. Our findings reveal that pollen development occurs only in staminate flowers, while ovule development begins in both types of flowers but ceases in staminate flowers due to post-meiosis abortion. In contrast, normal development continues in pistillate flowers. These results suggest that dioecy in C. gonocarpa may have arisen from a gynodioecious pathway.