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Recent studies have focused on the generation of biomaterials from natural sources, highlighting the use of starch from different sources to obtain edible films and coatings. In this study, edible films were developed from sweet potato starch, and their potential use in candy packaging was evaluated. Films were prepared by the casting method, and the effects of sweet potato starch (3 %-5 % w/w), glycerol (0.8 %-1.2 % v/v), and calcium carbonate (0.05 %-0.1 % w/w) on the physical, structural, optical, and barrier properties were examined using a completely randomized design. The sweet potato starch presented granules with a spherical appearance and a swelling capacity of 1.33 g/g at 80 °C. ANOVA results showed that starch content and glycerol-calcium carbonate interaction affected the thickness and color parameters. The water vapor permeability and water solubility increased with increasing starch and glycerol concentrations. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of film microstructure showed increase in the band intensity, indicating modification of the starch structure. The film with sweet potato starch, glycerol, and calcium carbonate concentrations of 3 %, 0.8 %, and 0.1 %, respectively, used for candy packaging, endowed the product with good sensory acceptance during the 21 days of storage, although the product displayed slight changes in the color.

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Mathematical modeling of complex multi-catalytic reaction pathways is a powerful tool not only for determining optimal operational conditions but also for gaining insights into the kinetic behavior of efficient yet product-sensitive enzymes. This approach was applied to the biooxidation of glycerol using oxidases, aided by hematin, a natural mimic of heme peroxidases and catalases, which acts as a scavenger for enzymatically produced H2O2. The bi-catalytic reaction system was coupled with the formation of a colored imine product from phenol and 4-aminoantipyrine, enabling spectrophotometric monitoring of reaction kinetics. Alcohol oxidase (AOX) from Komagataella pastoris (formerly Pichia pastoris) was submitted to this strategy to overcome some kinetic drawbacks previously observed with galactose oxidase (GAO) from Dactylium dendroides. Although both enzymes exhibited comparable oxidation yields, computer-aided kinetic analyses revealed significant differences in efficiency and sensitivity to H2O2. AOX demonstrated two orders of magnitude greater efficiency and a similarly higher affinity for glycerol. However, AOX showed a stronger tendency to bind H2O2 compared to hematin or GAO, as suggested by the ratio of the inhibition constant (kinh) to the activation constant (k1) for hematin. The kinetic model was also used to simulate optimal conditions for enhancing the stability of AOX and hematin. Reducing glycerol concentration or increasing hematin concentration improved AOX stability, while the addition of phenol helped preserve hematin. The predicted stabilities turn the AOX/hematin/phenol system promising for biosensing or analytical applications.

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This study aimed to evaluate the effects of replacing corn grain with increasing levels (0, 50, 100, 200 g kg-1 of dry matter) of crude glycerin (GLY) on feed intake, digestibility, ruminal fermentation, nitrogen utilization, blood glucose and performance of male lambs fed a high-concentrate diet. Five castrated adult rumen-cannulated male lambs (30.3 ± 3.12 body weight) were used in a 5 × 5 Latin square design to evaluate metabolism parameters. Forty lambs (22.3 ± 3.8 kg body weight) were used in a randomized block design for performance evaluation. Diets contained 25 g kg-1 sugarcane bagasse (Saccharum officinarum L.) and 75 g kg-1 concentrate. There was a quadratic effect (P = 0.03) of GLY on the intakes of DM and neutral detergent fiber (P = 0.01). Increasing GLY levels did not affect (P > 0.05) nutrient digestibility and decreased linearly (P < 0.01) the ruminal acetate. Ruminal propionate, acetate: propionate ratio, and the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis were quadratically affected (P < 0.05) by GLY levels. Feeding GLY at 150 g kg-1 DM increased microbial efficiency but did not affect lamb performance and feed conversion (P > 0.05). The partial replacement of corn grain with crude glycerin at 150 g kg-1 DM did not adversely affect the intake and digestibility of nutrients and nitrogen utilization, nor did it impact body weight gains. Therefore, it can be considered as an alternative method to optimize feed costs while maintaining performance in finishing lambs fed a high-concentrate diet.

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The permeation of cryoprotectants into insect embryos is critical for successful cryopreservation. However, the permeability of silkworm embryos to cryoprotectants and the effects of cryopreservation remain poorly studied. In this study, we evaluated the permeability and toxicity of four cryoprotective agents (CPAs) as well as the vitrification effect on the viability of silkworm embryos. Among the four CPAs, propylene glycol (PG) showed the best permeability. Ethylene glycol (EG) and PG were the least toxic CPAs, but glycerol (GLY) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were more toxic. Moreover, we examined several factors including the kind and the concentration of CPAs, exposure time, embryonic stage, and silkworm strains. Embryos at the earlier phases of stage 25 were more tolerant to vitrification using EG. We found that over 21% of embryos treated with EG at the early 2 phase of stage 25: 163 h after egg laying (AEL) developed and progressed to serosa ingestion after vitrification and rewarming. The result was the same in other strains as well. Our results are valuable for the development of new cryopreservation protocols of silkworm embryos.

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The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of maize replacement by crude biodiesel-derived glycerol on the zootechnical performance, chemical carcass composition and blood parameters of silver catfish (Rhamdia quelen) juveniles. A total of 600 silver catfish juveniles were distributed in a completely randomized design with six treatments comprised of isoproteic and isoenergetic pelleted diets with six levels of glycerol replacing maize, and five replicates. The glycerol maize substitution significantly influenced (p < 0.05) the final weight, clean trunk production and headless carcass yield, with the highest values for both parameters observed in the 100% substitution treatment, significantly different compared to the 0% replacement treatment. Plasmatic calcium, alkaline phosphatase, glucose, total proteins, oxaloacetic and pyruvic glutamic transaminase concentrations were not influenced (p < 0.05) by the dietary treatments, nor were moisture, crude protein and mineral matter (p < 0.05). Crude glycerol can be included in up to 7.5% in juvenile silver catfish diets. Biodiesel-derived glycerol can, thus, successfully replace maize in juvenile silver catfish diets.

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Oleogels are semi-solid systems that can function both as replacers of trans and saturated fats and/or as carriers of lipophilic bioactive compounds. However, bioactive compounds can affect the structure of the oleogel matrix and this effect depends on the properties of such compounds. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop oleogels loaded with ß-carotene (BC) or resveratrol (R), with low concentrations of glycerol monostearate (GMS, 2-5 wt%) and sunflower oil as organic solvent. The gels were characterized by polarized light microscopy, rheological measurements, differential scanning calorimetry, oil binding capacity and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. At higher GMS concentrations, stronger oleogels and higher temperatures associated with transitions (sol-gel/gel-sol and crystallization/melting) were observed. The incorporation of bioactive compounds modified the gelation behavior. BC weakened the oleogel structure during the transient molecular organization of GMS, whereas R increased the dynamic moduli. BC also caused slight oil release at lower concentrations, while R improved retention. The high hydrophobicity of BC may be disturbing the solubility balance of the system, while R has phenolic hydroxyl groups that may strengthen hydrogen bonds. However, there were no considerable changes in mechanical properties after storage. We hypothesize that the molecular organization of GMS over time may be masking the modifications that bioactive compounds cause in mechanical properties. In fact, changes in the structure were revealed, as the addition of BC or R changed the morphology of the three-dimensional network crystals. Thus, the results can contribute to the rational choice of system components using low concentrations of oleogelator, as the composition of the bioactive compound exerts influence on the modulation of lipid matrices.

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Yeast immobilization in beer fermentation has recently regained attention, due to the expansion of the craft beer market and the diversification of styles and flavors. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological differences between immobilized and free yeast cells with a focus on flavor-active compounds formation. Three strains of Saccharomyces spp. (SY025, SY067, SY001) were evaluated in both free and immobilized (using a cellulose-based support, referred as ImoYeast) forms during static batch fermentations of 12 °P malt extract. Immobilized cells showed higher glycerol (SY025, 40%; SY067, 53%; SY001, 19%) and biomass (SY025, 67%; SY067, 78%; SY001, 56%) yields than free cells. Conversely, free cells presented higher ethanol yield (SY025, 9%; SY067, 9%; SY001, 13%). Flavor-active compounds production exhibited significant alterations between immobilized and free cells systems, for all strains tested. Finally, a central composite design with varying initial biomass (X0) and substrate (S0) concentrations was conducted using strain SY025, which can be helpful to modulate the formation of one or more flavor-active compounds. In conclusion, yeast immobilization in the evaluated support resulted in flavor alterations that can be exploited to produce different beer styles.

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In this study, the biosynthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) was carried out using Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These PHAs were produced using reagent-grade glycerol and crude glycerol as the carbon sources. The objective was to compare the production of PHAs and to functionalize these polymers with silver nanoparticles to provide antibacterial properties for potential biomedical applications. The findings from the physical and chemical analyses confirmed the successful synthesis and extraction of PHAs, achieving comparable yields using both crude glycerol and reagent-grade glycerol as carbon sources across both strains. Approximately 16% higher PHAs production was obtained using Pseudomonas putida compared to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and no significant difference was observed in the production rate of PHAs between the two carbon sources used, which means that crude glycerol could be utilized even though it has more impurities. Notably, PHAs functionalized with silver nanoparticles showed improved antibacterial effectiveness, especially those derived from reagent-grade glycerol and the Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain.

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This paper describes an alternative method for the in situ synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with a particle size of less than 3 nm, using nanoreactors formed by reverse micelles of 1,4-bis-(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate sodium (AOT) and nanoparticle stabilization with l-cysteine, which favor the preparation of nanoparticles with size and shape control, which are homogeneously dispersed (1% by weight) on the support of titanium dioxide nanowires (TNWs). To study the activity and selectivity of the prepared catalyst (AuNPs@TNWs), an aqueous solution of 40 mM glycerol was irradiated with a green laser (λ = 530 nm, power = 100 mW) in the presence of the catalyst and O2 as an oxidant at 22 °C for 6 h, obtaining a glycerol conversion of 86% with a selectivity towards hydroxypyruvic acid (HA) of more than 90%. From the control and reactions, we concluded that the Ti-OH groups promote the glycerol adsorption on the nanowires surface and the surface plasmon of the gold nanoparticles favors the selectivity of the reaction towards the hydroxypyruvic acid.

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An innovative integrated paper-based microdevice was developed for protein separation by isoelectric focusing (IEF), allowing for robust design thanks to a 3D-printed holder integrating separation channel, reservoirs, and electrodes. To reach robustness and precision, the optimization focused on the holder geometry, the paper nature, the reservoir design, the IEF medium, and various focusing parameters. A well-established and stable pH gradient was obtained on a glass-fiber paper substrate with simple sponge reservoirs, and the integration of the electrodes in the holder led to a straightforward system. The separation medium composed of water/glycerol (85/15, v/v) allowed for reducing medium evaporation while being an efficient medium for most hydrophobic and hydrophilic proteins, compatible with mass spectrometry detection for further proteomics developments. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the use of glycerol solutions as a separation medium in a paper-based microdevice. Analytical performances regarding pH gradient generation, pI determination, separation efficiency, and resolution were estimated while varying the IEF experimental parameters. The overall process led to an efficient separation within 25 min. Then, this methodology was applied to a sample composed of saliva doped with proteins. A minimal matrix effect was evidenced, underscoring the practical viability of our platform. This low-cost, versatile and robust paper-based IEF microdevice opens the way to various applications, ranging from sample pre-treatment to integration in an overall proteomic-on-a-chip device.

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Para estabelecer medidas equivalentes para o ensaio de produtos de tabaco em escala mundial é necessário que haja métodos consensuais de medição do conteúdo e das emissões específicas dos cigarros. Nenhum regime de tragada obtido por máquinas é capaz de representar plenamente o comportamento humano de fumar: os ensaios realizados em máquinas de fumar são úteis para caracterizar as emissões de cigarro para fins de design e regulação, mas a divulgação aos fumantes das medições em máquinas pode resultar em interpretações equivocadas a respeito das diferenças de exposição e risco existentes entre as marcas. Os dados de emissão de fumaça obtidos por medições em máquinas podem ser usados como elementos para a avaliação do perigo do produto, mas não são e nem se destinam a ser medidas válidas de exposição ou risco para os seres humanos. A apresentação de diferenças nas medições em máquina como diferenças de exposição ou risco constitui uso indevido dos resultados do ensaio com métodos recomendados da TobLabNet da OMS. Este documento foi preparado por membros da Rede de Laboratórios de Tabaco (TobLabNet) da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) como um procedimento operacional padrão (POP) de método analítico para determinação de umectantes no tabaco do cigarro.

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Para estabelecer medidas equivalentes para o ensaio de e-líquido em escala mundial, é necessário que haja métodos consensuais de medição do conteúdo específico em e-líquido. Como o conteúdo específico de nicotina é limitado a uma determinada concentração em algumas regiões do mundo, por exemplo, na União Europeia, a concen tração máxima de nicotina em e-líquido é de 20 mg/mL, considera-se a nicotina um elemento prioritário a ser medido em e-líquido. O glicerol e o propilenoglicol estão normalmente na composição do e-líquido, estes componentes podem ser medidos com a nicotina. Assim, sua determinação está incluída no POP. Este POP foi preparado para descrever o procedimento para a determinação de nicotina, glicerol e propilenoglicol em e-líquido de acordo com a ISO 20714. Este documento foi preparado por membros da Rede de Laboratórios de Tabaco da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) (TobLabNet) em cooperação com os laboratórios membros da Ação Europeia Conjunta para o Controle do Tabagismo (JATC) como um procedimento operacional padrão (POP) do método analítico para determinação de nicotina, glicerol e propilenoglicol em e-líquido.

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Macauba (Acrocomia aculeata) is a Brazilian palm tree whose oil in the pulp is rich in oleic acid and carotenoids. However, its physiological function remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effects of macauba pulp oil (MPO) on the metabolic link between lipid metabolism and lifespan using Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). C. elegans were treated with 5.0 mg/mL of MPO for analyzing triglyceride and glycerol accumulation, fatty acid profile, gene expression of lipid and oxidative metabolism proteins under cold (4°C) stress conditions, and lifespan analysis under stress conditions such as cold (4°C), heat (37°C), and oxidative (paraquat) stress. MPO significantly suppressed fat accumulation and increased glycerol (a lipolysis index) and the lifespan of C. elegans at low temperature (4°C). This was accompanied by decreased mRNA levels of the genes involved in lipogenesis (spb-1 and pod-2) and increased levels of the genes involved in fatty acid ß-oxidation (acs-2 and nhr-49) and fat mobilization genes (hosl-1 and aak-2). Additionally, MPO treatment modulated fatty acid pools in C. elegans at low temperatures in that MPO treatment decreased saturated fatty acid levels and shifted the fatty acid profile to long-chain fatty acids. Moreover, the effect of MPO on fat accumulation at low temperatures was abolished in fat-7 mutants, whereas both fat-1 and fat-7 contribute, at least in part, to MPO-elevated survival of C. elegans under cold conditions. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The results obtained in the present study may contribute to the understanding of the health benefits of consuming macauba pulp oil and consequently stimulate economic growth and the industrial application of this new type of oil, which may result in the creation of new jobs and increased value of small producers.

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Biosurfactants (BSFs) are molecules produced by microorganisms from various carbon sources, with applications in bioremediation and petroleum recovery. However, the production cost limits large-scale applications. This study optimized BSFs production by Bacillus velezensis (strain MO13) using residual glycerin as a substrate. The spherical quadratic central composite design (CCD) model was used to standardize carbon source concentration (30 g/L), temperature (34 °C), pH (7.2), stirring (239 rpm), and aeration (0.775 vvm) in a 5-L bioreactor. Maximum BSFs production reached 1527.6 mg/L of surfactins and 176.88 mg/L of iturins, a threefold increase through optimization. Microbial development, substrate consumption, concentration of BSFs, and surface tension were also evaluated on the bioprocess dynamics. Mass spectrometry Q-TOF-MS identified five surfactin and two iturin isoforms produced by B. velezensis MO13. This study demonstrates significant progress on BSF production using industrial waste as a microbial substrate, surpassing reported concentrations in the literature.

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Research on innovative approaches to the valorisation of glycerol as a subproduct of biodiesel production has acquired an increasing demand in the development of a circular economy around energy generation, especially, in the line of improvement of the heterogeneous metallic catalysts used. In this regard, carbon xerogels have gained importance due to their stability and modifiability, while transition metals such as copper stand out as a cost-effective alternative, resulting in a technology where surface engineering plays a crucial role in achieving competitive catalytic activity. Building upon this, current research evaluates doped xerogels (Si, N, or GO) as supports of Cu and catalysts by themselves for glycerol oxidation. Benefits from the incorporation of oxygenated functional groups (OFG) were also evaluated. Results showed a consistently higher selectivity towards lactic acid (LA) across all catalysts and competitive catalytic conversion. In this performance, dopants played a crucial role in surface acid-base characteristics, while oxygenated functional groups (OFG) influenced copper adsorption, dispersion, and reducibility. Notably, the Cu/CXN-f catalyst demonstrated the highest LA yield by combining the effect of N as a doping species, with the presence of OFG and the formation of appropriated metallic Cu domains. This research underscores the potential of carbon xerogels in the tailored catalyst design, contributing to sustainable chemical production through their customizable textural and chemical properties.

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This study explored the isolation and screening of an osmotolerant yeast, Wickerhamomyces anomalus BKK11-4, which is proficient in utilizing renewable feedstocks for sugar alcohol production. In batch fermentation with high initial glucose concentrations, W. anomalus BKK11-4 exhibited notable production of glycerol and arabitol. The results of the medium optimization experiments revealed that trace elements, such as H3BO3, CuSO4, FeCl3, MnSO4, KI, H4MoNa2O4, and ZnSO4, did not increase glucose consumption or sugar alcohol production but substantially increased cell biomass. Osmotic stress, which was manipulated by varying initial glucose concentrations, influenced metabolic outcomes. Elevated glucose levels promoted glycerol and arabitol production while decreasing citric acid production. Agitation rates significantly impacted the kinetics, enhancing glucose utilization and metabolite production rates, particularly for glycerol, arabitol, and citric acid. The operational pH dictated the distribution of the end metabolites, with glycerol production slightly reduced at pH 6, while arabitol production remained unaffected. Citric acid production was observed at pH 6 and 7, and acetic acid production was observed at pH 7. Metabolomic analysis using GC/MS identified 29 metabolites, emphasizing the abundance of sugar/sugar alcohols. Heatmaps were generated to depict the variations in metabolite levels under different osmotic stress conditions, highlighting the intricate metabolic dynamics occurring post-glucose uptake, affecting pathways such as the pentose phosphate pathway and glycerolipid metabolism. These insights contribute to the optimization of W. anomalus BKK11-4 as a whole-cell factory for desirable products, demonstrating its potential applicability in sustainable sugar alcohol production from renewable feedstocks.

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Some synthetic polymers can be used at low concentrations to reduce the toxicity of conventional cryoprotectant agents. In this study we investigated whether the addition of synthetic polymers to a conventional cryoprotectant solution would improve the cryopreservation of bovine ovarian tissue. Freshly collected ovaries from ten adult crossbred cows were incised using a scalpel in the frontal section. From each cow, ovarian cortical slices of 1 mm thickness were divided into 30 fragments of 3 × 3 mm, of which 10 served as fresh controls, 10 were vitrified with conventional cryoprotectant agents (2.93 M glycerol, 27 % w/v; 4.35 M ethylene glycol, 27 % w/v), and 10 were vitrified using the same cryoprotectant agents in addition to synthetic polymers (0.2 % PVP K-12, 0.2 % SuperCool X-1000 ™ w/v and 0.4 % SuperCool Z-1000 ™ w/v). After warming, histology was used to assess follicular quantity and integrity, while in vitro culture of mechanically isolated follicles encapsulated in an alginate matrix was performed for 15 days to assess their growth and hormonal production. Vitrified ovarian tissues presented abnormal morphology, a higher percentage of atretic follicles, and their isolated follicles had lower survival rates and lower frequency of antrum formation during in vitro culture compared to those from fresh tissue. At the end of culture, the follicles that had been cryopreserved produced less estradiol and progesterone than the fresh ones. The addition of synthetic polymers during tissue vitrification did not modify any of these parameters. We conclude that, under the conditions of this study, the use of this combination of synthetic polymers for tissue vitrification did not enhance the preservation of the morphological or functional integrity of bovine ovarian follicles.

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There are more than 200 species and subspecies of Neotropical Primates of which more than 40% are listed as threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Both in situ and ex situ conservation programs can benefit from the use of assisted reproductive technologies. The objective of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, cryopreservation techniques for Alouatta caraya semen. Semen samples were collected from five adult males, analyzed, and frozen in either Test-egg yolk or Test-soy lecithin-based extenders containing either 3 or 4% glycerol. Frozen-thawed samples were analyzed at 10, 40, and 80 min post-thaw. Egg yolk-based extenders were overall better than soy lecithin-based extenders. There was no significant difference between 3 and 4% glycerol in any of the parameters analyzed, however, 4% glycerol in egg yolk-based extender produced more favorable results for total motility, intact plasma membrane, lipid peroxidation, and DNA fragmentation index. This study brought novel information on semen characteristics and cryopreservation aspects for A. caraya, which can help shape future experiments to improve the outcome of frozen-thawed sperm for this and other species of Neotropical primates.

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Abstract This research evaluates the presence of the oxygen-inhibited layer (OIL) on the top surface of a photopolymerized dental composite resin protected with a glycerin layer. This evaluation was conducted using physical and mathematical methods. Polymerized discs were fabricated to evaluate Vickers microhardness (VHN), and pre-and post-polymerized samples were used for the calculation of C-O/C-H ratios through Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) (n=10), using two types of glycerin, one for medical use (MG) and another for dental use (DG). Surface hardness decreased from MG to DG to CO, and the increase in C-O/C-H ratios decreased in the same order (p<0.05). Samples protected with medical and dental glycerin layers are harder and exhibit lower C-O/C-H bond ratios than the control group.

Resumen La presente investigación evalúa la presencia de la capa inhibida por oxígeno OIL en la última superficie fotocurada de una resina compuesta de uso odontológica que fue protegida con una capa de glicerina. Esta evaluación se hizo a partir de métodos físicos y matemáticos. Se fabricaron discos polimerizados para evaluar la microdureza Vickers (VHN) y pre y post polimerizados para el cálculo de tasas C-O/C-H por medio de Espectroscopía Infrarroja Transformada de Fourier (FTIR) (n=10) usando dos tipos de glicerina, una de uso médico (MG) y otra de uso dental (DG). La dureza superficial disminuyó de MG a DG a CO y el aumento de tasas C-O/C-H disminuyó en ese mismo orden (p<0,05). Las muestras protegidas con capas de glicerina médica y odontológica son más duras y presentan menos cantidad tasas de enlaces C-O/C-H que el grupo control.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiology of 13 yeast strains by assessing their kinetic parameters under anaerobic conditions. They included Saccharomyces cerevisiae CAT-1 and 12 isolated yeasts from different regions in Brazil. The study aimed to enhance understanding of the metabolism of these strains for more effective applications. Measurements included quantification of sugars, ethanol, glycerol, and organic acids. Various kinetic parameters were analyzed, such as specific substrate utilization rate (qS), maximum specific growth rate (µmax), doubling time, biomass yield, product yield, maximum cell concentration, ethanol productivity (PEth), biomass productivity, and CO2 concentration. S. cerevisiae CAT-1 exhibited the highest values in glucose for µmax (0.35 h-1), qS (3.06 h-1), and PEth (0.69 gEth L-1 h-1). Candida parapsilosis Recol 37 did not fully consume the substrate. In fructose, S. cerevisiae CAT-1 stood out with higher values for µmax (0.25 h-1), qS (2.24 h-1), and PEth (0.60 gEth L-1 h-1). Meyerozyma guilliermondii Recol 09 and C. parapsilosis Recol 37 had prolonged fermentation times and residual substrate. In sucrose, only S. cerevisiae CAT-1, S. cerevisiae BB9, and Pichia kudriavzevii Recol 39 consumed all the substrate, displaying higher PEth (0.72, 0.51, and 0.44 gEth L-1 h-1, respectively) compared to other carbon sources.