The motives and methods of methamphetamine and 'heroin' co-use in West Virginia.

BACKGROUND: Opioid and methamphetamine co-use is increasing across the USA with overdoses involving these drugs also rising. West Virginia (WV) has led the US in opioid overdose death rates since at least 2013 and rising co-use of methamphetamine with opioids has played a greater role in deaths over the last 5 years. METHODS: This study used rapid ethnography to examine methods and motivations behind opioids and methamphetamine co-use from the viewpoint of their consumers. Participants (n = 30) were people who injected heroin/fentanyl also using methamphetamine who participated in semi-structured interviews. RESULTS: We found multiple methods of co-using opioids and methamphetamine, whether alternately or simultaneously and in varying order. Most prioritized opioids, with motives for using methamphetamine forming three thematic categories: 'intrinsic use', encompassing both inherent pleasure of combined use greater than using both drugs separately or for self-medication of particular conditions; 'opioid assisting use' in which methamphetamine helped people manage their existing heroin/fentanyl use; and 'reluctant or indifferent use' for social participation, reflecting methamphetamine's low cost and easy availability. CONCLUSIONS: Methamphetamine serves multiple functions among people using opioids in WV. Beliefs persist that methamphetamine can play a role in preventing and reversing opioid overdose, including some arguments for sequential use being protective of overdose. 'Reluctant' uptake attests to methamphetamine's social use and the influence of supply. The impact on overdose risk of the many varied co-use patterns needs further investigation.

The Opioid Epidemic: a Crisis Disproportionately Impacting Black Americans and Urban Communities.

The heroin epidemic has existed for decades, but a sharp rise in opioid overdose deaths (OODs) jolted the nation in the mid-twenty-teens and continues as a major health crisis to this day. Although the new wave of OODs was initially approached as a rural problem impacting a White/Caucasian demographic, surveillance records suggest severe impacts on African Americans and urban-dwelling individuals, which have been largely underreported. The focus of this report is on specific trends in OOD rates in Black and White residents in states with a significant Black urban population and declared as hotspots for OOD: (Maryland (MD), Illinois (IL), Michigan (MI), and Pennsylvania (PA)), and Washington District of Columbia (DC). We compare OODs by type of opioid, across ethnicities, across city/rural demographics, and to homicide rates using 2013-2020 data acquired from official Chief Medical Examiners' or Departments of Health (DOH) reports. With 2013 or 2014 as baseline, the OOD rate in major cities (Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia) were elevated two-fold over all other regions of their respective state. In DC, Wards 7 and 8 OODs were consistently greater than other jurisdictions, until 2020 when the rate of change of OODs increased for the entire city. Ethnicity-wise, Black OOD rates exceeded White rates by four- to six-fold, with fentanyl and heroin having a disproportionate impact on Black opioid deaths. This disparity was aggravated by its intersection with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. African Americans and America's urban dwellers are vulnerable populations in need of social and political resources to address the ongoing opioid epidemic in under-resourced communities.

Spatiotemporal Analysis of the Association Between Pain Management Clinic Laws and Opioid Prescribing and Overdose Deaths.

Pain management clinic (PMC) laws were enacted by 12 states to promote appropriate opioid prescribing, but their impact is inadequately understood. We analyzed county-level opioid overdose deaths (National Vital Statistics System) and patients filling long-duration (≥30 day) or high-dose (≥90 morphine milligram equivalents per day) opioid prescriptions (IQVIA, Inc.) in the United States in 2010-2018. We fitted Besag-York-Mollié spatiotemporal models to estimate annual relative rates (RRs) of overdose and prevalence ratios (PRs) of high-risk prescribing associated with any PMC law and 3 provisions: payment restrictions, site inspections, and criminal penalties. Laws with criminal penalties were significantly associated with reduced PRs of long-duration and high-dose opioid prescriptions (adjusted PR = 0.82, 95% credible interval (CrI): 0.82, 0.82, and adjusted PR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.73, 0.74 respectively) and reduced RRs of total and natural/semisynthetic opioid overdoses (adjusted RR = 0.86, 95% CrI: 0.80, 0.92, and adjusted RR = 0.84, and 95% CrI: 0.77, 0.92, respectively). Conversely, PMC laws were associated with increased relative rates of synthetic opioid and heroin overdose deaths, especially criminal penalties (adjusted RR = 1.83, 95% CrI: 1.59, 2.11, and adjusted RR = 2.59, 95% CrI: 2.22, 3.02, respectively). Findings suggest that laws with criminal penalties were associated with intended reductions in high-risk opioid prescribing and some opioid overdoses but raise concerns regarding unintended consequences on heroin/synthetic overdoses.

The Influence of the Opioid Epidemic on Firearm Violence in Kentucky Counties.

BACKGROUND: The opioid crisis is a major public health emergency. Current data likely underestimate the full impact on mortality due to limitations in reporting and toxicology screening. We explored the relationship between opioid overdose and firearm-associated emergency department visits (ODED & FAED, respectively). METHODS: For the years 2010 to 2017, we analyzed county-level ODED and FAED visits in Kentucky using Office of Health Policy and US Census Bureau data. Firearm death certificate data were analyzed along with high-dose prescriptions from the Kentucky All Schedule Prescription Electronic Reporting records. Socioeconomic variables analyzed included health insurance coverage, race, median household earnings, unemployment rate, and high-school graduation rate. RESULTS: ODED and FAED visits were correlated (Rho = 0.29, P< 0.01) and both increased over the study period, remarkably so after 2013 (P < 0.001). FAED visits were higher in rural compared to metro counties (P < 0.001), while ODED visits were not. In multivariable analysis, FAED visits were associated with ODED visits (Std. B = 0.24, P= 0.001), high-dose prescriptions (0.21, P = 0.008), rural status (0.19, P = 0.012), percentage white race (-0.28, P = 0.012), and percentage high school graduates (-0.68, P < 0.001). Unemployment and earnings were bivariate correlates with FAED visits (Rho = 0.42, P < 0.001 and -0.32, P < 0.001, respectively) but were not significant in the multivariable model. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to recognized nonfatal consequences of the opioid crisis, firearm violence appears to be a corollary impact, particularly in rural counties. Firearm injury prevention efforts should consider the contribution of opioid use and abuse.

Illicit synthetic opioid consumption in Asia and the Pacific: Assessing the risks of a potential outbreak.

BACKGROUND: Illegally manufactured potent synthetic opioids (IMPSO) like fentanyl have contributed to rises in overdose deaths in parts of North America and Europe. While many of these substances are produced in Asia, there is little evidence they have entered markets there. We consider the susceptibility to IMPSO's encroachment in markets in the Asia-Pacific region. METHODS: Our analysis focuses on Australia, China, India, and Myanmar. Using a mixed-methods approach comprising interviews, literature review, and secondary data analyses, we examine factors facilitating or impeding incursion of IMPSO. Finally, we illustrate the potential for IMPSO fatalities in Australia. RESULTS: Australia reports some signs of three facilitating factors to IMPSO's emergence: 1) existing illicit opioid markets, 2) disruption of opioid supply, and 3) user preferences. The other three countries report only existing illicit opioid markets. While diverted pharmaceutical opioids are a noted problem in Australia and India, heroin is the dominant opioid in all four countries. There are divergent trends in heroin use, with use declining in China, increasing in India, and stable in Australia and Myanmar. If IMPSO diffused in Australia as in North America from 2014 to 2018, and our assumptions generally hold, deaths from IMPSO could range from 1500-5700 over a five-year period. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis and illustrative calculations serve as an early indication for policymakers. With the exception of Australia, many countries in the region fail to properly record overdose deaths or monitor changes in local drug markets. Early assessment and monitoring can give officials a better understanding of these changing threats.

The fentanyl phase of the opioid epidemic in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, United States.

Since late 2014, fentanyl has become the major driver of opioid mortality in the United States. However, a descriptive analysis of fentanyl victims is limited. We studied the 2016 fentanyl and heroin overdose deaths and compared them to previously studied heroin-associated fatalities from 2012 over a wide range of demographic and investigative variables, including overdose scene findings, toxicology results, and prescription drug history. We observed a significant increase in fentanyl-related deaths (n = 421, 2016) versus heroin deaths (n = 160, 2012) but the baseline demographics between both cohorts remained similar. Victims were predominantly of ages 35-64 years (60%-64%), White (83%-85%), and male (73%-76%). 2016 fentanyl decedents were more likely to have naloxone administered upon overdose, and the majority still had a positive prescription history for a controlled substance. Toxicology data showed a decrease in mean morphine and 6-monoacetylmorphine concentrations when cointoxication with fentanyl occurred. Our study emphasizes the medical examiner's role as a public health data source and bridge between different stakeholders combating the opioid epidemic.

Trends in hydrocodone combination product exposures reported to California Poison Control System (CPCS) following DEA rescheduling.

CONTEXT: On October 6, 2014, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) implemented a regulatory change for hydrocodone combination products (HCPs), moving them from Schedule III to II, in an effort to decrease drug overdoses. Existing research suggests this regulatory action reduced HCP prescribing and dispensing; however, there is limited research assessing its possible effects on overdoses and accidental exposures. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the changes in opioid exposures reported to the California Poison Control System (CPCS) before and after DEA rescheduling of HCPs. METHODS: We collected monthly exposure data reported to CPCS from 2012 to 2019 and conducted interrupted time series analyses to assess changes in exposures after rescheduling for HCPs, tramadol, oxycodone, morphine, codeine, fentanyl, and heroin. Additional analyses were done to assess any changes in exposures resulting in severe outcomes (moderate or major health effects). For HCPs, we also conducted logistic regressions to identify characteristics of exposures resulting in severe outcomes before and after rescheduling. RESULTS: Overall monthly opioid exposures reported to CPCS decreased after DEA rescheduling of HCPs. These decreases were significant for HCP, tramadol, and morphine (p < 0.001). Exposures significantly increased for heroin and fentanyl (p < 0.001). There were no significant changes in the share of severe outcomes attributed to HCP exposures after rescheduling. DISCUSSION: The DEA rescheduling of HCPs was associated with a significant decrease in HCP exposures and prescription opioid exposures overall, but was associated with increased fentanyl and heroin exposures. While other initiatives may have contributed to this decrease, our findings suggest that rescheduling may be a useful regulatory strategy to reduce drug exposures. CONCLUSION: DEA rescheduling of HCPs was associated with a significant reduction in prescription opioid exposures, suggesting that rescheduling high-risk drugs may be an effective strategy to improve public health.

"Chasing the Dragon": A Fatal Case Report of Toxic Leucoencéphalopathie Due to Inhaled Heroin.

BACKGROUND: Leukoencephalopathy is a myelin disorder caused by multiple agents, including substance abuse. CASE: A 28-year-old man arrived at the emergency department having suffered from asthenia, dizziness, disorientation and ataxia for two months. He had a two-year history of heroin inhalation. He arrived in a normal physical condition. Brain magnetic resonance showed bilateral diffuse hypointense lesions in the white matter. At day 3 after admission, he presented neurological deterioration, stupor, haemodynamic instability, respiratory failure, and died. DISCUSSION: Toxic leukoencephalopathy symptoms start with inattention, memory and personality changes, and may eventually cause dementia and death. Heroin inhalation is a common practice and can lead to leukoencephalopathy. CONCLUSIONS: Leukoencephalopathy associated with heroin inhalation is a rare entity that mainly affects young adults and has a high social impact. Its aetiology is unclear, it has no effective treatment and there is a high mortality rate. Heroin consumption is on the rise in Colombia, so TL should be considered by medical staff.

Acute exogenous intoxications and homocysteine.

INRODUCTION: Oxidative stress is an important pathogenetic factor in a number of socially significant diseases, including the acute exogenous poisoning. Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid synthesized on the basis of methionine, which plays an important role as an oxidizing agent in the human body. As such a factor, it was the monitored subject of this study. AIM: To measure the level of homocysteine in acute exogenous poisoning with alcohol, heroin and cerebro-toxic drugs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a prospective longitudinal study including 118 patients with moderate or severe acute poisoning with cerebro-toxic drugs (n=45), alcohol (n=40), heroin (n=33) and a "control group" (n=35). Clinical laboratory tests were performed according to the standards of a clinical laboratory. In the statistical analysis we used alternative and variance analysis, parametric methods for hypothesis assessment, and nonparametric methods for normal distribution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The results showed that for the three groups of intoxications, the average homocysteine levels were higher than those of the control group (р<0.001). The intergroup comparison criterion for normal distribution showed that the changes in patients with alcohol intoxication (u=3.39; р<0.001) and heroin intoxication (u=2.00; р<0.001) were highly statistically significant without correlating with the severity of the poisoning (р>0.05). CONCLUSION: There is a risk of oxidative stress in intoxication with alcohol and narcotics. A reliable marker for the complex evaluation of oxidative stress in people is monitoring the serum level of homocysteine and its careful interpretation.

Opioid-related overdose mortality in the era of fentanyl: Monitoring a shifting epidemic by person, place, and time.

BACKGROUND: With the emergence of illicit fentanyl, fentanyl-involved overdose rates increased from 2013 to 2017 in the United States (US). We describe US trends in opioid-related overdose mortality rates by race, age, urbanicity, and opioid type before and after the emergence of fentanyl. METHODS: Using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's WONDER database, we estimated crude and age-standardized opioid-related overdose mortality rates at the intersections of race (non-Hispanic [NH] Black and white), age (<55 and ≥55 years), sex (male and female) and urbanicity (urban and rural residence) from 2005 to 2017. We compare relative changes in mortality from 2013 to 17, and describe changes in the contributions of fentanyl, heroin, and other opioids to opioid-related overdose mortality. RESULTS: From 2013 to 2017, the overall opioid overdose mortality rate was consistently higher in NH white Americans, however, the rate increase was greater among NH Black (174 %) compared to NH white (85 %) Americans. The steepest increases occurred in the overdose rates between 2013 and 2017 among younger (aged <55 years) urban NH Black Americans (178 % increase). Among older (≥55 years) adults, only urban NH Black Americans had an increase in overdose-related mortality rate (87 % increase). Urban NH Black Americans also experienced the greatest increase in the percent of fentanyl-involved deaths (65 % in younger, 61 % in older). CONCLUSIONS: In the era of increased availability of illicitly manufactured fentanyl (2013-2017), there has been a disproportionate increase in opioid-related overdose deaths among urban NH Black Americans. Interventions for urban NH Black Americans are urgently needed to halt the increase in overdose deaths.

Steep increases in fentanyl-related mortality west of the Mississippi River: Recent evidence from county and state surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Overdose deaths from synthetic opioids (e.g., fentanyl) increased 10-fold in the United States from 2013 to 2018, despite such opioids being rare in illicit drug markets west of the Mississippi River. Public health professionals have feared a "fentanyl breakthrough" in western U.S. drug markets could further accelerate overdose mortality. We evaluated the number and nature of western U.S. fentanyl deaths using the most recent data available. METHODS: We systematically searched jurisdictions west of the Mississippi River for publicly available data on fentanyl-related deaths since 2018, the most recent Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) statistics. Using mortality data from 2019 and 2020, we identified changes in fentanyl-related mortality rate and proportion of fatal heroin-, stimulant, and prescription pill overdoses involving fentanyl. RESULTS: Seven jurisdictions had publicly available fentanyl death data through December 2019 or later: Arizona; California; Denver County, CO; Harris County, TX; King County, WA; Los Angeles County, CA; and Dallas-Fort Worth, TX (Denton, Johnson, Parker, and Tarrant counties). All reported increased fentanyl deaths over the study period. Their collective contribution to national synthetic narcotics mortality increased 371 % from 2017 to 2019. Available 2020 data shows a 63 % growth in fentanyl-mortality over 2019. Fentanyl-involvement in heroin, stimulant, and prescription pill deaths has substantially grown. DISCUSSION: Fentanyl has spread westward, increasing deaths in the short-term and threatening to dramatically worsen the nation's already severe opioid epidemic in the long-term. Increasing the standard dose of naloxone, expanding Medicaid, improving coverage of addiction treatment, and public health educational campaigns should be prioritized.

Aspiration in lethal drug abuse-a consequence of opioid intoxication.

AIMS: The primary objective of this study was to investigate whether the fatalities of opioid abuse are not only related to respiratory depression but also as a result of other side effects such as emesis, delayed gastric emptying, a reduction of the cough reflex, and impaired consciousness leading to the aspiration of gastric contents, a finding regularly observed in drug-related deaths. DESIGN: A retrospective exploratory study analyzing heroin/morphine/methadone-related deaths submitted to court-ordered autopsy. SETTING: Center for Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Austria (2010-2015). PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred thirty-four autopsy cases were included in the study: morphine (n = 200), heroin (n = 11), and methadone (n = 23) intoxication. FINDINGS: Analyses revealed that 41.88% of all deceased showed aspiration of gastric contents with equal gender distribution (p = 0.59). Aspiration was more frequent in younger deceased (χ2 = 8.7936; p = 0.012) and in deceased with higher body mass index (BMI) (χ2 = 6.2441; p = 0.044). Blood opioid concentration was lower in deceased with signs of aspiration than in non-aspirators (p = 0.013). Toxicological evaluation revealed a high degree of concomitant substance abuse (91%)-benzodiazepines (61.6%) and/or alcohol (21.8%). CONCLUSIONS: There are lower opioid concentrations in deceased with signs of aspiration, a fact which strongly points to aspiration as alternative cause of death in opioid-related fatalities. Furthermore, this study highlights the common abuse of slow-release oral morphine in Vienna and discusses alternative medications in substitution programs (buprenorphine/naloxone or tamper-resistant slow-release oral morphine preparations), as they might reduce intravenous abuse and opioid-related deaths.

Exploration of the STOP Act and Opioid Deaths in North Carolina, 2010-2018.

Objectives. To examine the impact of North Carolina's 2017 Strengthening Opioid Misuse Prevention (STOP) Act on opioid overdose deaths.Methods. We used quarterly data from the North Carolina Opioid Dashboard to conduct an interrupted time series analysis ranging from 2010 to 2018. Results were stratified by heroin-fentanyl deaths and other opioid deaths.Results. After the STOP Act, there was an initial rate increase of 0.60 opioid deaths per 100 000 population (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.04, 1.15) and a decrease of 0.42 (95% CI = -0.56, -0.29) every quarter thereafter. Results differed by stratification.Conclusions. Our results suggest that North Carolina's STOP Act was associated with a reduction in opioid deaths in the year following enactment. The changes in opioid overdose death trends coinciding with the STOP Act were similar to outcomes seen with previous opioid policies.Public Health Implications. Future policies designed to reduce the availability of opioids may benefit from encouraging and increasing the availability of evidence-based treatment of opioid use disorder.

Accidental Overdose Deaths in Oklahoma, 2002-2017: Opioid and Methamphetamine Trends.

To evaluate trends related to accidental overdose deaths in Oklahoma, with a focus on opioids and methamphetamine. All accidental drug overdose deaths in the state of Oklahoma from 2002 to 2017 were reviewed. Opioids were grouped into the following categories: all opioids, prescription opioids, synthetic opioids and heroin. Age-adjusted death rates for methamphetamine and each opioid category were calculated and analyzed. Accidental overdoses accounted for 9,936 deaths during the study period. Of these, opioids were seen in 62.9%, with prescription opioids comprising 53.8%, synthetic opioids 10.3% and heroin 2.8%. Synthetic opioids, despite a recent upward nationwide trend, showed a slight overall decrease (-6.8%) from 2009 to 2017. In contrast, methamphetamine showed a 402.2% increase from 2009 to 2017 and an overall increase of 1,526.7%. Methamphetamine was involved in the most overdoses (1,963), followed by oxycodone (1,724). Opioid-related deaths were most common among white individuals (90.3%) and showed a slight male predilection (56.9%). With the intent of assessing the opioid epidemic as it relates to accidental overdoses in Oklahoma, this study suggests that opioid-related overdoses have slowed in recent years amidst a sharp increase in methamphetamine deaths.

Opioid prescribing history prior to heroin overdose among commercially insured adults.

BACKGROUND: Since 2010, heroin-related overdoses have risen sharply, coinciding with policies to restrict access to prescription opioids. It is unknown if patients tapered or discontinued off prescription opioids transitioned to riskier heroin use. This study examined opioid prescribing, including long-term opioid therapy (LTOT) and discontinuation, prior to heroin overdose. METHODS: We used retrospective longitudinal data from a national claims database to identify adults with an emergency or inpatient claim for heroin overdose between January 2010 and June 2017. Receipt of opioid prescription, LTOT episodes, and discontinuation of LTOT were measured for the period of one year prior to heroin overdose. RESULTS: We identified 3183 individuals (53.2% age 18-25; 70.0% male) with a heroin overdose (incidence rate 4.20 per 100k person years). Nearly half (42.3%) received an opioid prescription in the prior 12 months, and 10.9% had an active opioid prescription in the week prior to overdose. LTOT at any time in the 12 months prior to overdose was uncommon (12.8%) among those with heroin overdoses, especially among individuals 18-25 years old (3.5%, P < 0.001). LTOT discontinuation prior to overdose was also relatively uncommon, experienced by 6.7% of individuals aged 46 and over and 2.5% of individuals aged 18-25 years (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Prior to heroin overdose, prescription opioid use was common, but LTOT discontinuation was uncommon and observed primarily in older individuals with the lowest heroin overdose rates. Further study is needed to determine if these prescribing patterns are associated with increased heroin overdose.

ICD-10-CM-Based Definitions for Emergency Department Opioid Poisoning Surveillance: Electronic Health Record Case Confirmation Study.

OBJECTIVES: Valid opioid poisoning morbidity definitions are essential to the accuracy of national surveillance. The goal of our study was to estimate the positive predictive value (PPV) of case definitions identifying emergency department (ED) visits for heroin or other opioid poisonings, using billing records with International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-10-CM) codes. METHODS: We examined billing records for ED visits from 4 health care networks (12 EDs) from October 2015 through December 2016. We conducted medical record reviews of representative samples to estimate the PPVs and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of (1) first-listed heroin poisoning diagnoses (n = 398), (2) secondary heroin poisoning diagnoses (n = 102), (3) first-listed other opioid poisoning diagnoses (n = 452), and (4) secondary other opioid poisoning diagnoses (n = 103). RESULTS: First-listed heroin poisoning diagnoses had an estimated PPV of 93.2% (95% CI, 90.0%-96.3%), higher than secondary heroin poisoning diagnoses (76.5%; 95% CI, 68.1%-84.8%). Among other opioid poisoning diagnoses, the estimated PPV was 79.4% (95% CI, 75.7%-83.1%) for first-listed diagnoses and 67.0% (95% CI, 57.8%-76.2%) for secondary diagnoses. Naloxone was administered in 867 of 1055 (82.2%) cases; 254 patients received multiple doses. One-third of all patients had a previous drug poisoning. Drug testing was ordered in only 354 cases. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings suggest that heroin or other opioid poisoning surveillance definitions that include multiple diagnoses (first-listed and secondary) would identify a high percentage of true-positive cases.

Understanding the increase in opioid overdoses in New Hampshire: A rapid epidemiologic assessment.

BACKGROUND: New Hampshire (NH) has had among the highest rates of fentanyl-related overdose deaths per capita in the United States for several years in a row-more than three times the national average in 2016. This mixed-methods study investigated drug-using practices and perspectives of NH residents who use opioids to inform policy in tackling the overdose crisis. METHODS: Seventy-six participants from six NH counties completed demographic surveys and semi-structured interviews focused on drug-using practices and perspectives, including use precursors, fentanyl-seeking behaviors, and experiences with overdose. Rigorous qualitative methods were used to analyze interview data including transcription, coding and content analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated on quantitative survey data. RESULTS: Eighty-four percent of interviewees had knowingly used fentanyl in their lifetime, 70 % reported overdosing at least once, and 42 % had sought a batch of drugs known to have caused an overdose. The majority stated most heroin available in NH was laced with fentanyl and acknowledged that variability across batches increased overdose risk. Participants reported high availability of fentanyl and limited access to prevention, treatment, and harm reduction programs. There was widespread support for expanding education campaigns for youth, increasing treatment availability, and implementing needle exchange programs. CONCLUSIONS: A confluence of factors contribute to the NH opioid overdose crisis. Despite consensus that fentanyl is the primary cause of overdoses, individuals continue to use it and affirm limited availability of resources to address the problem. Policies targeting innovative prevention, harm reduction, and treatment efforts are needed to more effectively address the crisis.

Investigating opioid-related fatalities in southern Sweden: contact with care-providing authorities and comparison of substances.

BACKGROUND: Opioid-related deaths have increased in Western countries over recent decades. Despite numerous studies investigating opioid-related mortality, only a few have focused on the lives of the deceased individuals prior to their deaths, specifically regarding contact with care-providing authorities such as health, social and correctional services. Furthermore, a change has been noted in the last two decades as to which opioids cause most deaths, from heroin to prescription opioids. However, studies comparing fatalities caused by different substances are rare. The aim of this study was to investigate contact with care-providing authorities during the year prior to death among individuals who died as a result of opioid intoxication and to analyse differences relating to which opioids caused their deaths. METHODS: The study is based on retrospective register data and includes 180 individuals with a history of illicit drug use, who died from opioid intoxication in Skåne, Sweden, between 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2013 and 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2016. Intoxications caused by heroin, methadone, buprenorphine and fentanyl were included. Data were collected from the National Board of Forensic Medicine, regional health care services, municipal social services and the Prison and Probation Service. Statistical testing was performed using Pearson's chi-square test, Fisher's exact test and the Mann-Whitney U test to analyse group differences. RESULTS: A total of 89% of the deceased individuals had been in contact with one or more of the care-providing authorities during the year prior to death; 75% had been in contact with health care, 69% with the social services, 28% with the Prison and Probation Service, and 23% had been enrolled in opioid substitution treatment at some point during their final year of life. Few differences appeared between the substance groups with regard to which opioid contributed to the death. In addition to opioids, sedatives were present in more than 80% of the cases. Individuals whose deaths were buprenorphine-related had been in contact with the social services to a significantly lesser extent during the year prior to death. CONCLUSIONS: The studied population is characterised by extensive contact with care-providing authorities, thus providing numerous opportunities for authorities to reach this group with preventive and other interventions. Few differences emerged between groups with regard to which opioid had contributed to the death.

The rise in non-fatal and fatal overdoses involving stimulants with and without opioids in the United States.

AIMS: To examine trends and recent changes in non-fatal and fatal stimulant overdose rates with and without opioids to improve the descriptive characterization of the US overdose epidemic. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of non-fatal (2006-16) and fatal (2006-17) drug overdose trends, focusing on the most recent years of data available to examine rate changes by demographics (2015-16 for non-fatal and 2016-17 for fatal). SETTING: Non-fatal drug overdoses from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project's Nationwide Emergency Department Sample; drug overdose deaths from the National Vital Statistics System. PARTICIPANTS/CASES: International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) and Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification/Procedure Coding System (ICD-10-CM/PCS) codes for cocaine, psychostimulants and opioids were used to classify non-fatal drug overdoses. Drug overdose deaths were identified using ICD-10 multiple cause-of-death codes for cocaine, psychostimulants, all opioids, heroin and synthetic opioids. MEASUREMENTS: Percentage of changes in age-adjusted non-fatal and fatal rates of cocaine and psychostimulant-involved drug overdose with and without opioids. FINDINGS: Overall, cocaine-involved non-fatal overdose rates with an opioid increased from 2006 to 2016 [annual percentage change (APC) = 14.7], while rates without an opioid increased from 2006 to 2012 (APC = 11.3) and then remained stable (APC = -7.5). Psychostimulant-involved non-fatal rates with and without an opioid increased from 2006 to 2016 (APC = 49.9 with opioids; 13.9 without opioids). Cocaine-involved death rates with and without opioids increased from 2014 to 2017 (APC = 46.0 with opioids, 23.6 without opioids). Psychostimulant-involved death rates with opioids increased from 2010 to 2015 (APC = 28.6), with a dramatic increase from 2015 to 2017 (APC = 50.5), while rates without opioids increased from 2008 to 2017 (APC = 22.6). In 2016, 27% of non-fatal cocaine- and 14% of psychostimulant-involved overdoses included a reported opioid; 72.7% of cocaine- and 50.3% of psychostimulant-involved deaths involved an opioid in 2017. From 2015 to 2016, cocaine-involved and psychostimulant-involved non-fatal overdose rates with an opioid increased 17.0 and 5.9%, respectively; cocaine-involved and psychostimulant-involved non-fatal overdoses without opioids decreased 13.6 and increased 18.9%, respectively. Death rates involving stimulants increased with and without opioids from 2016 to 2017 (cocaine with and without opioids = 37.7 and 23.3%; psychostimulants with and without opioids = 52.2 and 23.0%). Death rates involving stimulants with synthetic opioids increased dramatically from 2016 to 2017 (1.3-2.3 per 100 000 for cocaine and 0.3-0.8 for psychostimulants). CONCLUSIONS: While increases in cocaine-involved deaths in the United States from 2006 seem to be driven by opioids, particularly synthetic opioids, increases in non-fatal and fatal overdoses involving psychostimulants are occurring with and without opioids.