Antibiotic Prescription Patterns in Children Under 5 Years of Age With Acute Diarrhea in Quito-Ecuador.

BACKGROUND: Diarrheal disease remains a significant cause of child mortality, particularly in regions with limited access to healthcare and sanitation. Inappropriate practices, including unjustified medication prescriptions, pose challenges in the management of acute diarrhea (AD), especially in low- and middle-income countries. OBJECTIVE: This study analyzed antibiotic prescription patterns and assessed compliance with Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) guidelines in children under 5 with AD in the Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) Ambulatory Care Centers of Quito city, Ecuador. METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used, collecting electronic health records (EHR) of patients diagnosed with AD from 21 health facilities in District 17D03. A probabilistic and stratified sampling approach was applied. Patient characteristics, prescriber characteristics, treatments, and compliance of IMCI guideline recommendations were evaluated. A stepwise logistic regression analysis examined the association between antibiotic prescription and patient and physician characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 359 children under 5 years of age were included, with 58.77% being girls. 85.24% of the cases of AD were attributed to gastroenteritis and colitis of infectious and unspecified origin. Amebiasis and other protozoal intestinal diseases accounted for 13.37% and 1.11% of the cases, respectively. The completion rates of recording various IMCI parameters varied; parameters such as duration of diarrhea, presence of blood in stool, and evidence of sunken eyes had high completion rates (100%, 100%, and 87.47%, respectively), while parameters like state of consciousness, presence of thirst, and type of diarrhea had low completion rates (0.28%, 0.28%, and 0.84%, respectively). None of the cases had all parameters fully recorded. Antimicrobials were prescribed in 38.72% of the cases. Children aged 3 to 5 years had higher odds of receiving antimicrobial prescription for AD (aOR: 4.42, 95% CI 2.13-9.18, P < .0001) compared to those under 1 year, after adjusting for the number of loose stools per day, gender, and age of the health professional. CONCLUSION: Variations in IMCI guideline compliance were observed, with no cases fully adhering to the guidelines. Antimicrobial prescription rates were notably high, especially among older children. Further research and specialized interventions are necessary to gain comprehensive insight into the factors underlying non-compliance with the IMCI guidelines.

Long-term impacts of an urban sanitation intervention on enteric pathogens in children in Maputo city, Mozambique: study protocol for a cross-sectional follow-up to the Maputo Sanitation (MapSan) trial 5 years postintervention.

INTRODUCTION: We previously assessed the effect of an onsite sanitation intervention in informal neighbourhoods of urban Maputo, Mozambique on enteric pathogen detection in children after 2 years of follow-up (Maputo Sanitation (MapSan) trial, ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02362932). We found significant reductions in Shigella and Trichuris prevalence but only among children born after the intervention was delivered. In this study, we assess the health impacts of the sanitation intervention after 5 years among children born into study households postintervention. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: We are conducting a cross-sectional household study of enteric pathogen detection in child stool and the environment at compounds (household clusters sharing sanitation and outdoor living space) that received the pour-flush toilet and septic tank intervention at least 5 years prior or meet the original criteria for trial control sites. We are enrolling at least 400 children (ages 29 days to 60 months) in each treatment arm. Our primary outcome is the prevalence of 22 bacterial, protozoan, and soil transmitted helminth enteric pathogens in child stool using the pooled prevalence ratio across the outcome set to assess the overall intervention effect. Secondary outcomes include the individual pathogen detection prevalence and gene copy density of 27 enteric pathogens (including viruses); mean height-for-age, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height z-scores; prevalence of stunting, underweight, and wasting; and the 7-day period prevalence of caregiver-reported diarrhoea. All analyses are adjusted for prespecified covariates and examined for effect measure modification by age. Environmental samples from study households and the public domain are assessed for pathogens and faecal indicators to explore environmental exposures and monitor disease transmission. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Study protocols have been reviewed and approved by human subjects review boards at the Ministry of Health, Republic of Mozambique and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Deidentified study data will be deposited at https://osf.io/e7pvk/. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN86084138.

Lactobacillus reuteri como probiótico para cólicos infantiles, diarrea, dolor abdominal funcional y estreñimiento funcional en pediatría / Lactobacillus reuteri as a probiotic for infantile colic, diarrhea, functional abdominal pain and functional constipation in pediatrics

INTRODUCCIÓN: El principio del uso de probióticos proviene de la utilización de productos fermentados, desde tiempos muy antiguos. Se definen como microorganismos vivos que, administrados en cantidades adecuadas, confieren beneficios para la salud.[1] Entre las utilidades atribuidas a los probióticos, las más extensamente estudiadas han sido los efectos en niños con diarrea aguda. Existe abundante bibliografía sobre la utilización de estos productos en el tratamiento y la prevención de diarrea aguda infecciosa, y prevención de diarrea nosocomial y de diarrea asociada al uso de antibióticos. Los estudios son heterogéneos en su metodología y muestran resultados dispares, incluso contradictorios. En la interpretación de éstos es imprescindible tener en cuenta las cepas de probióticos utilizadas, las dosis administradas y las características de los pacientes en quienes fueron probadas.[2] El cólico infantil, o el llanto excesivo de causa desconocida, es una condición de pesada carga que afecta aproximadamente 1 cada 5 bebés menores de 3 meses de edad.[3] El cólico infantil es comúnmente definido por los criterios de Wessel modificados como la presencia de llanto y/o molestias > 3 horas al día durante = 3 días a la semana.[4] El cólico infantil es un problema frecuente en la consulta pediátrica. Su prevalencia mundial es del 15 al 40% en niños menores de cuatro meses, independientemente del tipo de lactancia administrada El dolor abdominal funcional es un dolor de estómago episódico o continuo sin causa orgánica. Esto significa que el dolor no es causado por un cambio físico o fisiológico de algún tejido u órgano. Por lo general, el dolor se localiza alrededor del ombligo, pero el patrón y la localización de este dolor no siempre son predecibles. El dolor puede ocurrir repentinamente o ir incrementando lentamente de intensidad. Puede ser constante o variar en severidad. Este afecta a niños entre 4 y 18 años, con un pico de presentación entre los 5 y los 7 años, justo cuando el niño comienza a ir al colegio, y otro pico entre los 8 y los 12 años. Se estima que entre el 10 y el 20% de los niños en edad escolar padecen trastornos funcionales de dolor. El dolor abdominal funcional es más común en las niñas.[6] El estreñimiento funcional es un problema común en pediatría, con una prevalencia mundial estimada del 3 %. La constipación funcional es originada por la retención voluntaria de materia fecal debido al dolor o miedo evacuatorio. Los desencadenantes pueden ser por un cambio en la dieta, la dificultad en el abandono del pañal, durante el período de escolarización o, simplemente, el antecedente de haber padecido una deposición previa dolorosa, que produce conductas retentivas secundarias al temor. Estas conducen a una mayor absorción colónica de agua, lo que crea heces duras, con el consiguiente círculo vicioso que puede desencadenar escurrimiento fecal. OBJECTIVO: Evaluar rapidamente los parâmetros de eficácia, seguridade, costos y recomendacones disponibles acerca del empleo de L. reuteri para el tratamento de personas con cólicos infnatiles, diarrea, dolor abdominal funional, estreñimiento funcional en niños. METODOLOGIA: Se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica en las principales bases de datos tales como PUBMED, LILACS, BRISA, COCHRANE, SCIELO, EMBASE, TRIPDATABASE como así también en sociedades científicas, agencias reguladoras, financiadores de salud y agencias de evaluación de tecnologias sanitárias. Se priorizó la inclusión de revisiones sistemáticas, ensayos clínicos controlados aleatorizados, evaluación de tecnología sanitária y guias de práctica clínica. RESULTADOS: Se hicieron recomendaciones para el uso de cepas probióticas específicas para el tratamiento de la gastroenteritis aguda, la prevención de la diarrea asociada a antibióticos, la diarrea nosocomial y la enterocolitis necrotizante, el tratamiento de la infección por Helicobacter pylori y el tratamiento de los trastornos funcionales del dolor abdominal y los cólicos infantiles. CONCLUSIONES: Los probióticos, en general, se consideran seguros para su uso en niños en las indicaciones de cólico del lactante, diarrea aguda, estreñimiento funcional y dolor abdominal funcional pediátrico. Sin embargo, es importante destacar que pueden causar efectos secundarios gastrointestinales leves en algunos casos, como gases, distensión abdominal o molestias estomacales. Estos efectos suelen ser transitorios y desaparecen con el tiempo o al suspender el uso de los probióticos. En raras ocasiones, se han reportado complicaciones más serias, como infecciones sistémicas en pacientes inmunocomprometidos, aunque son extremadamente infrecuentes. En la actualidad, los probióticos se consideran un complemento terapéutico más que un tratamiento definitivo para las diversas indicaciones solicitadas. Aunque existen pruebas limitadas sobre su eficacia en la mejora de estas condiciones, especialmente en el ámbito pediátrico, su inclusión en los listados institucionales es aún limitado. Sin embargo, contar con una gama más amplia de opciones terapéuticas fortalecería el arsenal de herramientas disponibles para los pediatras en la gestión de problemas de la práctica clínica habitual, que con frecuencia resultan en consultas recurrentes por parte de los padres. Por lo tanto, la ampliación del uso de probióticos podría proporcionar beneficios adicionales en el manejo de diversas afecciones pediátricas, ofreciendo opciones terapéuticas complementarias y promoviendo una atención integral y personalizada para los pacientes pediátricos.

Antibiotic-Prescribing Practices for Management of Childhood Diarrhea in 3 Sub-Saharan African Countries: Findings From the Vaccine Impact on Diarrhea in Africa (VIDA) Study, 2015-2018.

BACKGROUND: Despite antibiotic prescription being recommended for dysentery and suspected cholera only, diarrhea still triggers unwarranted antibiotic prescription. We evaluated antibiotic-prescribing practices and their predictors among children aged 2-59 months in the Vaccine Impact on Diarrhea in Africa (VIDA) Study performed in The Gambia, Mali, and Kenya. METHODS: VIDA was a prospective case-control study (May 2015-July 2018) among children presenting for care with moderate-to-severe diarrhea (MSD). We defined inappropriate antibiotic use as prescription or use of antibiotics when not indicated by World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. We used logistic regression to assess factors associated with antibiotic prescription for MSD cases who had no indication for an antibiotic, at each site. RESULTS: VIDA enrolled 4840 cases. Among 1757 (36.3%) who had no apparent indication for antibiotic treatment, 1358 (77.3%) were prescribed antibiotics. In The Gambia, children who presented with a cough (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 2.05; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 1.21-3.48) were more likely to be prescribed an antibiotic. In Mali, those who presented with dry mouth (aOR: 3.16; 95% CI: 1.02-9.73) were more likely to be prescribed antibiotics. In Kenya, those who presented with a cough (aOR: 2.18; 95% CI: 1.01-4.70), decreased skin turgor (aOR: 2.06; 95% CI: 1.02-4.16), and were very thirsty (aOR: 4.15; 95% CI: 1.78-9.68) were more likely to be prescribed antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS: Antibiotic prescription was associated with signs and symptoms inconsistent with WHO guidelines, suggesting the need for antibiotic stewardship and clinician awareness of diarrhea case-management recommendations in these settings.

Manejo do paciente com diarreia

Avaliação do Estado de Hidratação do Paciente.

Doenças diarreicas agudas

As doenças diarreicas agudas (DDA) correspondem a um grupo de doenças infecciosas gastrointestinais. São caracterizadas por uma síndrome em que há ocorrência de no mínimo três episódios de diarreia aguda em 24 horas, ou seja, diminuição da consistência das fezes e aumento do número de evacuações, quadro que pode ser acompanhado de náusea, vômito, febre e dor abdominal

Italian guidelines for the management of irritable bowel syndrome Joint Consensus from the Italian Societies of: Gastroenterology and Endoscopy (SIGE), Neurogastroenterology and Motility (SINGEM), Hospital Gastroenterologists and Endoscopists (AIGO), Digestive Endoscopy (SIED), General Medicine (SIMG), Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Pediatric Nutrition (SIGENP) and Pediatrics (SIP)

The irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a chronic disorder of gut-brain interaction. IBS is still associated with areas of uncertainties, especially regarding the optimal diagnostic work-up and the more appropriate management. Experts from 7 Italian Societies conducted a Delphi consensus with literature summary and voting process on 27 statements. Recommendations and quality of evidence were evaluated using the grading of recommendations, assessment, development, and evaluation (GRADE) criteria. Consensus was defined as >80% agreement and reached for all statements. In terms of diagnosis, the consensus supports a positive diagnostic strategy with a symptom-based approach, including the psychological comorbidities assessment and the exclusion of alarm symptoms, together with the digital rectal examination, full blood count, C-reactive protein, serology for coeliac disease, and fecal calprotectin assessment. Colonoscopy should be recommended in patients with alarm features. Regarding treatment, the consensus strongly supports a dietary approach for patients with IBS, the use of soluble fiber, secretagogues, tricyclic antidepressants, psychologically directed therapies and, only in specific IBS subtypes, rifaximin. A conditional recommendation was achieved for probiotics, polyethylene glycol, antispasmodics, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and, only in specific IBS subtypes, 5-HT3 antagonists, 5-HT4 agonists, bile acid sequestrants

Diagnostic testing practices for diarrhoeal cases in South African public hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Stool samples submitted for diagnostic testing represent a proportion of diarrhoeal cases seeking healthcare, and an even smaller proportion of diarrhoeal cases in the community. Despite this, surveillance relies heavily on these laboratory results. This study described diarrhoeal diagnostic practices and aetiological agents of diarrhoea in patients admitted to three South African public hospitals in order to understand biases in surveillance data, and inform guidelines, diagnostic and laboratory practices to improve clinical management. METHODS: A doctors' survey was conducted to determine sample submission, diarrhoeal treatment and barriers to submitting samples for testing. Results for all samples submitted for routine diagnostics were obtained from the NHLS Central Data Warehouse. An enhanced surveillance study enrolled patients with acute diarrhoea at the same hospitals over the same period. Differences between routine culture results and molecular testing from the surveillance study were described. RESULTS: Stool samples were seldom submitted for diagnostic testing (median of 10% of admitted cases). Current diagnostic guidelines were not useful, hence most doctors (75.1%) relied on their own clinical judgement or judgement of a senior clinician. Although most doctors (90.3%) agreed that diagnostics were helpful for clinical management, they reported patients being unwilling to provide samples and long laboratory turnaround times. Routine diagnostic data represent cases with chronic diarrhoea and dysentery since doctors are most likely to submit specimens for these cases. Pathogen yield (number of pathogens detected for samples tested for specific pathogens) was significantly higher in the surveillance study, which used molecular methods, than through routine diagnostic services (73.3% versus 8.2%, p < 0.001), including for viruses (48.9% versus 2.6%, p < 0.001), bacteria (40.1% versus 2.2%, p < 0.001) and parasites (16.2% versus 3.6%, p < 0.001). Despite viruses being commonly detected in the surveillance study, viral testing was seldom requested in routine diagnostic investigations. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive diagnostic and treatment guidelines are required for diarrhoeal diseases. These guidelines should be informed by local epidemiological data, where diagnostic testing is reserved for cases most likely to benefit from specific treatment. Optimisation of current diagnostic processes and methods are required for these cases, specifically in terms of minimising turnaround times while maximising diagnostic acumen.

Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE): Lyophilized CVD 103-HgR Vaccine Among Children and Adolescents Aged 2­17 Years

A Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) review of the evidence for benefits and harms for use of lyophilized CVD 103-HgR vaccine (CVD 103-HgR) among children and adolescents aged 2­17 years was presented to the Advisory Committee for Immunization Practices (ACIP) on January 12, 2022. GRADE evidence type indicates the certainty of estimates from the available body of evidence, ranging from type 1 (high certainty) to type 4 (very low certainty).1 The policy question was "Should ACIP recommend lyophilized CVD 103-HgR vaccine for children and adolescents aged 2­17 years traveling to an area with active cholera transmission?" (Table 1). The potential benefits pre-specified by the ACIP Cholera Vaccine Work Group were moderate to severe cholera diarrhea (critical) and cholera diarrhea of any severity (critical). The two pre-specified harms were serious adverse events (SAEs) (critical) and non-serious adverse events (important) (Tables 1 and 2). The work group conducted a systematic review of evidence on the benefits and harms of CVD 103-HgR among children and adolescents aged 2­17 years old. Studies identified were assessed using a modified GRADE approach.1 Regarding benefits, no studies of CVD 103-HgR in children and adolescents aged 2­17 years directly assessed vaccine efficacy or effectiveness against cholera diarrhea. The available data from randomized control trials (RCTs) demonstrated that, compared with placebo, vaccination was associated with a higher risk of serum vibriocidal antibody (SVA) seroconversion (pooled relative risk [RR]: 65.99, 95% CI: 9.43­461.69; pooled absolute risk [AR]: 97,000 more per 100,000, 95% CI: 12,582 more to 100,000 more). The evidence certainty was downgraded for serious imprecision, and the final level of certainty was type 2 (moderate) for both benefits. Regarding harms, the available data from RCTs demonstrated the vaccine and placebo arms had a similar risk of serious adverse events (pooled RR: 0.16, 95% CI 0.01­2.53; pooled AR: 1,120 fewer per 100,000, 95% CI: 1,320 fewer to 2,040 more); no serious adverse events were judged to be related to the vaccine among 468 recipients aged 2­17 years within 6 months of vaccination. The risk of non-serious adverse events was similar between the vaccine and placebo groups (pooled RR: 1.09, 95% CI 0.86­1.38; pooled AR: 4,560 more per 100,000, 95% CI: 7,093 fewer to 19,253 more). For both harms, the evidence certainty was downgraded for very serious imprecision, and the final certainty was type 3 (low).

Level of Mothers'/Caregivers' Healthcare-Seeking Behavior for Child's Diarrhea, Fever, and Respiratory Tract Infections and Associated Factors in Ethiopia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Objective: To assess the pooled prevalence of mothers' or caregivers' healthcare-seeking behavior for childhood diarrhea, fever, and respiratory tract infections and associated factors in Ethiopia. Study Design. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: Literature searches were conducted through databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, CINHAL, ScienceDirect, HINARI, and gray literatures) from September 1 to 30, 2021, using key terms in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. The characteristics of the original articles were described using text and tables. Heterogeneity among the reported prevalence of studies was checked by using a heterogeneity χ 2 test and I2 test. Publication bias was examined by performing Egger's correlation and Begg's regression intercept tests at a 5% significant level. A random-effect model was employed to estimate the pooled prevalence of the outcome variable and its determinants in Ethiopia. Results: Of the total identified studies, 25 studies were included in the review, with a total of 29,993 study participants. The overall pooled prevalence of mothers' or caregivers' health-seeking behavior for childhood diarrhea, fever, and respiratory tract infections was 60.33% (95% CI: 50.14-70.52). The significant factors were residence (AOR = 3.06, 95% CI: 1.11-8.39), wealth index (AOR = 2.18, 95% CI: 1.92-2.48), perceived severity of illness (AOR = 2.7, 95% CI: 1.12-6.51), and knowledge of the illness (AOR = 1.95, 95% CI: 1.37-2.75). Conclusion: This review suggests that the overall pooled prevalence of mothers' or caregivers' HSB for childhood diarrhea, fever, and respiratory tract infections was 60.33%. Residence, wealth index, perceived severity of illness, and knowledge of the illness by mothers were the significant factors. Therefore, providing interventions by considering the above factors will improve the overall seeking behavior.

AGA Clinical Practice Guideline on the Pharmacological Management of Irritable Bowel Syndrome With Diarrhea

Background & aims: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common functional gastrointestinal disorder associated with significant disease burden. This American Gastroenterological Association Guideline is intended to support practitioners in decisions about the use of medications for the pharmacological management of IBS with predominant diarrhea (IBS-D) and is an update of a prior technical review and guideline. Methods: The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation framework was used to assess evidence and make recommendations. The technical review panel prioritized clinical questions and outcomes according to their importance for clinicians and patients and conducted an evidence review of the following agents: eluxadoline, rifaximin, alosetron, loperamide, tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and antispasmodics. The guideline panel reviewed the evidence and used the Evidence-to-Decision Framework to develop recommendations. Conclusions: The panel agreed on 8 recommendations for the management of patients with IBS-D. The panel made conditional recommendations for eluxadoline, rifaximin, alosetron, (moderate certainty), loperamide (very low certainty), tricyclic antidepressants, and anstispasmodics (low certainty). The panel made a conditional recommendation against the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (low certainty). Keywords: Alosetron; Antidiarrheals; Antispasmodics; Eluxadoline; Irritable Bowel Syndrome; Meta-Analysis; Quality of Life; Randomized Controlled Trials; Rifaximin; Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors; Symptoms; Treatment; Tricyclic Antidepressants.

Diarrhoeagenic E. coli occurrence and antimicrobial resistance of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases isolated from diarrhoea patients attending health facilities in Accra, Ghana.

INTRODUCTION: Diarrhoea accounts for high morbidity and mortality in children and adults worldwide. Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE) and Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) contribute to prolonged hospitalization because of their resistance and virulence properties aiding in the spread of diarrhoeal disease and delayed treatment. AIM: To determine DEC and the antimicrobial resistance of ESBL-PE isolated among diarrhoea patients attending two health facilities in Ghana. METHODS: Stool samples were collected from 122 diarrhoeal patients who attended Maamobi General Hospital and Kaneshie Polyclinic between January 2019 and March 2020. Identification of bacteria was performed by using the Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Using disk diffusion, antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) was conducted and interpreted according to the 2018 CLSI guidelines. Detection of ESBL and DEC genes was performed using Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS: A total of 80.3% (98/122) Enterobacteriaceae was recovered from the patients in the study with an overall ESBL occurrence of 20.4% (20/98), predominantly among E. coli showed 13.2% (10/76), Klebsiella pneumoniae,35.7%(5/14) and Proteus mirabilis, 57.1%(4/7). Among the ESBL genes detected, blaTEM (n = 14) was common, followed by blaCTX-M (n = 13) and blaSHV (n = 4). Thirty-four E. coli isolates possessed the heat labile (Lt) gene of Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC). CONCLUSION: Our findings confirm the existence of DEC and the antimicrobial resistance patterns of ESBL-PE among stool isolates, limiting the options of commonly used drugs for diarrhoeal treatment in Ghana. Routine laboratory testing in health care facilities and strengthened surveillance systems among hospital networks are encouraged for a better understanding of their epidemiology and clinical implications.

Prevalence of drinking or eating more than usual and associated factors during childhood diarrhea in East Africa: a multilevel analysis of recent demographic and health survey.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhea is the second most common cause of death in under-five children. Fluid and food replacement during diarrheal episodes have a paramount effect to avert morbidity and mortality. However, there is limited information about feeding practices. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of drinking or eating more and associated factors during diarrhea among under-five children in East Africa using demographic and health surveys (DHSs). METHODS: Secondary data analysis was done on DHSs 2008 to 2018 in 12 East African Countries. Total weighted samples of 20,559 mothers with their under-five children were included. Data cleaning, coding, and analysis were performed using Stata 16. Multilevel binary logistic regression were performed to identify factors associated with drinking or eating more during diarrheal episodes. Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) with a 95% CI, and p-value < 0.05 were used to declare statistical significance. RESULTS: Prevalence of drinking or eating more than usual during diarrhea disease in East Africa was 26.27%(95% CI: 25.68-26.88). Mothers age > 35 years (AOR: 1.14, 95% CI: (1.03, 1.26), mothers primary education (AOR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.06,1.28), secondary education (AOR: 1.43,95% CI: 1.27,1.61), and higher education (AOR: 1.42,95% CI: 1.11,1.81), occupation of mothers (agriculture, AOR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.3-3.6), sales and services, AOR = 1.20, CI:1.07,1.34), manual, AOR =1.28,95% CI: 1.11,1.44), children age 1-2 years (AOR =1.34,95% CI: 1.22,1.46) and 3-4 years (AOR =1.36,95% CI: 1.20,1.55), four and more antenatal visits (AOR: 1.14,95% CI: 1.03,1.27), rich wealth status (AOR:1.27,95% CI: 1.16,1.40), birth in health facility (AOR = 1.19, 95%CI: 1.10, 1.30) and visit health facility (AOR = 1.12, 95%CI: 1.03, 1.22) were associated with drinking or eating more. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of drinking or eating more is low in East Africa. Maternal age, occupation, antenatal care visit, marital status, educational status, wealth status, place of delivery, visiting health facility, and child age were significantly associated with drinking or eating more during diarrheal episodes. Health policy and programs should focus on educating mothers, improving the household wealth status, encouraging women to contact health facilities for better feeding practices of children during diarrheal episodes.

Evaluating the cost utility of racecadotril in addition to oral rehydration solution versus oral rehydration solution alone for children with acute watery diarrhea in four low middle-income countries: Egypt, Morocco, Philippines and Vietnam.

AIM: To evaluate the cost utility of adjunct racecadotril and oral rehydration solution (R + ORS) versus oral rehydration solution (ORS) alone for the treatment of diarrhoea in children under five years with acute watery diarrhoea in four low-middle income countries. METHOD: A cost utility model, previously developed and independently validated, has been adapted to Egypt, Morocco, Philippines and Vietnam. The model is a decision tree, cohort model programmed in Microsoft Excel. The model structure represents the country-specific clinical pathways. The target population is children under the age of five years presenting with symptoms of acute watery diarrhea to an outpatient clinic or general physician practice. A healthcare payer perspective has been analysed with the model parameterised with local data, where available. Most recent cost data has been used to inform the drug, outpatient and inpatient costs. Uncertainty has been explored with univariate deterministic sensitivity. RESULTS: According to the base case models, R + ORS is dominant (cost-saving, more effective) versus ORS alone in Egypt, Morocco, Philippines and Vietnam. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios in each country fall in the southeast (cost-saving, more effective) quadrant and represent a cost savings of -304,152 EGP per QALY gain in Egypt; -6,561 MAD per QALY gain in Morocco; -428,612 PHP per QALY gain in Philippines and -113,985,734 VND per QALY gain in Vietnam. Univariate deterministic sensitivity analysis shows that the three most influential parameters across all country adaptations are the utility of children without diarrhea; the utility of inpatient children with diarrhea and the cost of one night of inpatient care. CONCLUSION: In keeping with similar findings in upper-middle and high-income countries, the cost utility of R + ORS versus ORS is favourable in low-middle income countries for the treatment of children under five with acute watery diarrhoea.

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARYDecision-makers rely on cost utility models to inform decisions about whether to publicly fund treatments as part of Universal Health Care. In low-middle income countries, the capacity to prepare cost utility models may be limited and using existing validated models is a practical solution to assist decision making. This study uses a cost utility model developed and independently validated for the United Kingdom, and adapts it to Philippines, Egypt, Morocco and Vietnam. The model evaluates the clinical benefit and economic impact of using racecadotril in addition to rehydration solution to treat diarrhoea in children. The results show that racecadotril is cost-saving and improves the quality of life for children in Philippines, Egypt, Morocco and Vietnam.

Incidence and predictors of severe acute malnutrition mortality in children aged 6-59 months admitted at Pawe general hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) is defined as a weight-for-height < -3z scores of the median WHO growth standards, or visible severe wasting or the presence of nutritional edema. SAM related mortality rates in under-five children are well documented in Ethiopia but data on their predictors are limited. We aimed to document factors associated with SAM related mortality to inform better inpatient management. METHODS: A facility-based retrospective cohort study was conducted among children admitted due to SAM at Pawe General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia, from the 1st of January 2015 to the 31st of December 2019. Data from the records of SAM children were extracted using a standardized checklist. Epi-Data version 3.2 was used for data entry, and Stata version 14 was used for analysis. Bi-variable and multivariable Cox regression analyses were conducted to identify predictors of mortality. Variables with P<0.05 were considered significant predictors of mortality. RESULTS: Five-hundred sixty-eight SAM cases were identified of mean age was 27.4 (SD± 16.5) months. The crude death rate was 91/568 (16.02%) and the mean time to death was determined as 13 (±8) days. Independent risk factors for death were: (i) vomiting AHR = 5.1 (1.35-21.1, p = 0.026), (ii) diarrhea AHR = 2.79 (1.46-5.4, p = 0.002), (iii) needing nasogastric therapy AHR = 3.22 (1.65-6.26, p = 0.001), (iv) anemia AHR = 1.89 (1.15-3.2, p = 0.012), and (v) being readmitted with SAM AHR = 1.7 (1.12-2.8, p = 0.037). CONCLUSION: SAM mortality was high in under-five children in our setting. The identified risk factors should inform treatment and prevention strategies. Improved community health education should focus on healthy nutrition and seeking early treatment. Inpatient mortality may be reduced by stricter adherence to treatment guidelines and recognizing early the key risk factors for death.

Capacity to provide care for common childhood infections at low-level private health facilities in Western, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Low-level private health facilities (LLPHFs) handle a considerable magnitude of sick children in low-resource countries. We assessed capacity of LLPHFs to manage malaria, pneumonia, diarrhea, and, possible severe bacterial infections (PSBIs) in under-five-year-olds. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey in 110 LLPHFs and 129 health workers in Mbarara District, Uganda between May and December 2019. Structured questionnaires and observation forms were used to collect data on availability of treatment guidelines, vital medicines, diagnostics, and equipment; health worker qualifications; and knowledge of management of common childhood infections. RESULTS: Amoxicillin was available in 97%, parental ampicillin and gentamicin in 77%, zinc tablets and oral rehydration salts in >90% while artemether-lumefantrine was available in 96% of LLPHF. About 66% of facilities stocked loperamide, a drug contraindicated in the management of diarrhoea in children. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests and microscopes were available in 86% of the facilities, timers/clocks in 57% but only 19% of the facilities had weighing scales and 6% stocked oxygen. Only 4% of the LLPHF had integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) booklets and algorithm charts for management of common childhood illnesses. Of the 129 health workers, 52% were certificate nurses/midwives and (26% diploma nurses/clinical officers; 57% scored averagely for knowledge on management of common childhood illnesses. More than a quarter (38%) of nursing assistants had low knowledge scores. No notable significant differences existed between rural and urban LLPHFs in most parameters assessed. CONCLUSION: Vital first-line medicines for treatment of common childhood illnesses were available in most of the LLPHFs but majority lacked clinical guidelines and very few had oxygen. Majority of health workers had low to average knowledge on management of the common childhood illnesses. There is need for innovative knowledge raising interventions in LLPHFs including refresher trainings, peer support supervision and provision of job aides.

Eficacia y seguridad de colestiramina para el tratamiento de diarrea por malabsorción de ácidos biliares secundaria a resección ileal en población pediátrica / Efficacy and safety of cholestyramine for treatment of diarrhea by acid malabsorption bile ducts secondary to ileal resection in population pediatric

INTRODUCCIÓN: Este documento técnico se realizó en el marco de la Guía de Práctica Clínica para pacientes pediátricos con falla intestinal; la pregunta PICO fue la siguiente: P: pacientes de 0-18 años con resección ileal por cualquier causa; I: colestiramina; C: placebo, colestipol, colesevelam, dietas modificadas o suplementos dietéticos; O: frecuencia de deposiciones, cambio en el peso o masa de las heces y eventos adversos. a. Cuadro clínico: Los ácidos biliares son moléculas cuya función principal es ayudar en la digestión y absorción de lípidos. En personas sanas, más del 95% de ácidos biliares se reabsorben en el íleon terminal. La reabsorción insuficiente de ácidos biliares en el íleon terminal incrementa la concentración en el colon, produciendo diarrea secretora. Se estima que la malabsorción de ácidos biliares (MAB) afecta al 1% de la población de países occidentales y cerca del 90% de pacientes con resección ileal. El tratamiento de la diarrea por MAB consiste en un manejo dietético y farmacológico. Los pacientes con diarrea y esteatorrea moderada deben someterse a una dieta baja en grasas (30 g/día) con o sin adición de triglicéridos de cadena media. El tratamiento farmacológico se basa en secuestrantes de ácidos biliares como colestiramina, colestipol o colesevelam. b. Tecnología sanitaria: Colestiramina es un secuestrante de ácidos biliares que se une con alta afinidad a los ácidos biliares en el intestino para formar un complejo estable e insoluble que se excreta en las heces. Pese a no ser una indicación aprobada, se emplea hace varias décadas para el tratamiento de MAB. Su forma de presentación consiste en sachets conteniendo 4 gr de polvo. Las dosis empleadas para la diarrea por MAB deben adaptarse a la respuesta del paciente, con una dosis máxima de 36 gr al día. Los eventos adversos suelen ser dependientes de la dosis, siendo los más frecuentes: malestar gastrointestinal, dispepsia, flatulencia, estreñimiento, náuseas y vómitos. Colestiramina cuenta en Perú con un registro sanitario vigente. Según el observatorio de precios de medicamentos de DIGEMID, el costo más bajo en el sector privado de 100 sobres de colestiramina asciende a S/. 13.00 (S/. 0.13 por cada sobre) mientras que no se hallaron precios disponibles en el sector público. OBJETIVO: Describir la evidencia científica sobre la eficacia y seguridad de colestiramina para el tratamiento de diarrea por malabsorción de ácidos biliares secundaria a resección ileal en población pediátrica. METODOLOGÍA: La búsqueda de evidencia se desarrolló en Medline, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library y LILACS hasta el 04 de octubre de 2021, limitado a estudios en español o inglés. La búsqueda de guías de práctica clínica (GPC) y evaluaciones de tecnología sanitaria (ETS) se desarrolló en repositorios digitales de agencias elaboradoras de estos documentos. Adicionalmente, se realizó una búsqueda de GPC en PubMed. Se valoró el riesgo de sesgo empleado la herramienta de la Colaboración Cochrane. RESULTADOS: No se identificó ningún estudio en población pediátrica. Se consideró como evidencia indirecta cuatro estudios primarios desarrollados en adultos. Frecuencia de deposiciones: El estudio de Hofmann (1969) reportó una reducción en la frecuencia diaria de deposiciones (p<0.05) durante el tratamiento con colestiramina en pacientes con <100 cm de resección ileal, comparado con placebo. En pacientes con >100 cm de íleon resecado (n=8) no se observaron diferencias. Un segundo estudio de Hofmann (1972) reportó una disminución en la frecuencia de deposiciones diarias de pacientes con resección ileal <100 cm tratados con colestiramina y triglicéridos de cadena larga (TCL) o media (TCM), en comparación con solo TCL o TCM. En pacientes con resección ileal >100 cm, colestiramina redujo la frecuencia de deposiciones, aunque la mayor reducción se observó cuando se reemplazó TCL por TCM, ambos sin colestiramina (p<0.025). El estudio de Jacobsen reportó una reducción del número de evacuaciones fecales durante el tratamiento con colestiramina comparado con placebo (15 vs 23, p<0.05). El estudio de Williams reportó una disminución del número de deposiciones al día en pacientes tratados colestiramina comparado con una dieta control (2.3 vs 4.6; p=0.027). Volumen de masa fecal El estudio de Hofmann (1969) reportó que 4 de 6 pacientes con <100 cm de resección ileal alcanzaron una reducción significativa de la masa fecal comparado con placebo (p<0.05). En pacientes con >100 cm de íleon resecado (n=3), colestiramina no produjo reducción significativa de la masa fecal en ningún participante. El estudio de Jacobsen reportó una reducción del volumen de masa fecal durante el tratamiento con colestiramina comparado con placebo (p<0.05). El estudio de Williams reportó una disminución significativa de la masa fecal en pacientes tratados colestiramina comparado con una dieta control de 2000 Kcal con TCL (media: 394 gr/día vs 568 gr/día; p=0.027). Eventos adversos: Ningún estudio informó sobre la presencia de eventos adversos. Recomendaciones en GPC: Las GPC de la Asociación Argentina de Nutrición Enteral y Parenteral (AANEP) y de la Canadian Association of Gastroenterology (CAG) recomiendan colestiramina para el manejo de la MAB. Las GPC de la European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), Cleveland Clinic, British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG), y American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) no recomiendan su uso en pacientes con resección ileal extensa. Evaluaciones de Tecnología Sanitaria: Una ETS desarrollada por IETSI concluyó con evidencia limitada aprobar el uso de colestiramina para el tratamiento de pacientes con diarrea crónica por MAB. Sin embargo, su aprobación fue revocada un año después por tratarse de una indicación terapéutica "fuera de etiqueta". Evaluación de la calidad metodológica: Tres estudios tuvieron alto riesgo de sesgo de selección. Dos estudios tuvieron alto riesgo de sesgo de realización y detección. El riesgo de sesgo de reporte fue considerado poco claro en todos los estudios. Todos los estudios fueron considerados como alto riesgo de otro tipo de sesgos por un reporte insuficiente o nulo de las fuentes de financiamiento y el conflicto de interés de los autores. CONCLUSIONES: Los hallazgos sobre la eficacia de colestiramina no fueron concluyentes. Dos estudios reportaron una reducción en la frecuencia de deposiciones y volumen fecal en pacientes tratados con colestiramina, mientras que otros dos estudios mostraron una reducción significativa solo en pacientes con resección ileal <100 cm, y un efecto limitado o nulo en pacientes con resección ileal extensa (>100 cm). No se informaron resultados sobre la seguridad de colestiramina. Los estudios incluidos enrolaron un número pequeño de participantes, con periodos cortos de seguimiento, presentaron alta heterogeneidad en el diseño, características de los participantes e intervenciones, y tuvieron un alto riesgo de sesgo en la mayoría de dimensiones evaluadas. Dos GPC consideran el uso de colestiramina como terapia para pacientes con diarrea por MAB, mientras que cuatro GPC recomiendan limitar su uso en pacientes con resección ileal extensa. Una ETS realizada por IETSI (Perú) concluyó aprobar el uso de colestiramina para el tratamiento de pacientes con diarrea crónica por MAB. Sin embargo, su aprobación fue revocada un año después por tratarse de una indicación terapéutica "fuera de etiqueta".

Nontyphoidal Salmonella and Their Antimicrobial Susceptibility among Diarrheic Patients Attending Private Hospitals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) is one of the major causes of bacterial foodborne infection. It is mainly manifested by self-limiting gastroenteritis in healthy individuals but can also cause severe complications including blood stream infection and mortality. The emergence of multidrug-resistant strains of Salmonella is becoming a global public health concern. This study is aimed at estimating the prevalence of Salmonella, identifying serotypes involved, and investigating antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates among diarrheic patients attending private hospitals in Addis Ababa. We collected a total of 298 stool samples from diarrheic patients attending five private hospitals in Addis Ababa and isolated Salmonella according to standard microbiological techniques; the isolates were serotyped using slide agglutination and microplate agglutination techniques. Antimicrobial susceptibility test of the isolates was carried out using Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion assay according to Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Fourteen stool samples (4.7%) were positive for Salmonella, and Salmonella Kiambu was the most dominant serovar (n = 7, 50%) followed by S. Saintpaul (n = 4, 28.6%) and S. Haifa (n = 2, 14.3%). Three (21.4%) of the isolates were resistant to sulfisoxazole and tetracycline each and 2 (14.3%) to ampicillin. Resistance to two antimicrobials was detected only in 2 (14.3%) of the isolates, and none of the isolates were resistant to more than two antimicrobials. In conclusion, the current study showed low prevalence of NTS in diarrheic patients attending private hospitals in Addis Ababa. Although multidrug resistance to several antimicrobials was not detected in the isolates, prudent use of antimicrobials is recommended to guaranty the long-term use of the available antimicrobials.