Establishment and Characterization of SV40 T-Antigen Immortalized Porcine Muscle Satellite Cell.

Muscle satellite cells (MuSCs) are crucial for muscle development and regeneration. The primary pig MuSCs (pMuSCs) is an ideal in vitro cell model for studying the pig's muscle development and differentiation. However, the long-term in vitro culture of pMuSCs results in the gradual loss of their stemness, thereby limiting their application. To address this conundrum and maintain the normal function of pMuSCs during in vitro passaging, we generated an immortalized pMuSCs (SV40 T-pMuSCs) by stably expressing SV40 T-antigen (SV40 T) using a lentiviral-based vector system. The SV40 T-pMuSCs can be stably sub-cultured for over 40 generations in vitro. An evaluation of SV40 T-pMuSCs was conducted through immunofluorescence staining, quantitative real-time PCR, EdU assay, and SA-ß-gal activity. Their proliferation capacity was similar to that of primary pMuSCs at passage 1, and while their differentiation potential was slightly decreased. SiRNA-mediated interference of SV40 T-antigen expression restored the differentiation capability of SV40 T-pMuSCs. Taken together, our results provide a valuable tool for studying pig skeletal muscle development and differentiation.

Membrane-bound Merkel cell polyomavirus middle T protein constitutively activates PLCγ1 signaling through Src-family kinases.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV or MCPyV) is an alphapolyomavirus causing human Merkel cell carcinoma and encodes four tumor (T) antigen proteins: large T (LT), small tumor (sT), 57 kT, and middle T (MT)/alternate LT open reading frame proteins. We show that MCV MT is generated as multiple isoforms through internal methionine translational initiation that insert into membrane lipid rafts. The membrane-localized MCV MT oligomerizes and promiscuously binds to lipid raft-associated Src family kinases (SFKs). MCV MT-SFK interaction is mediated by a Src homology (SH) 3 recognition motif as determined by surface plasmon resonance, coimmunoprecipitation, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays. SFK recruitment by MT leads to tyrosine phosphorylation at a SH2 recognition motif (pMTY114), allowing interaction with phospholipase C gamma 1 (PLCγ1). The secondary recruitment of PLCγ1 to the SFK-MT membrane complex promotes PLCγ1 tyrosine phosphorylation on Y783 and activates the NF-κB inflammatory signaling pathway. Mutations at either the MCV MT SH2 or SH3 recognition sites abrogate PLCγ1-dependent activation of NF-κB signaling and increase viral replication after MCV genome transfection into 293 cells. These findings reveal a conserved viral targeting of the SFK-PLCγ1 pathway by both MCV and murine polyomavirus (MuPyV) MT proteins. The molecular steps in how SFK-PLCγ1 activation is achieved, however, differ between these two viruses.

Unlicensed origin DNA melting by MCV and SV40 polyomavirus LT proteins is independent of ATP-dependent helicase activity.

Cellular eukaryotic replication initiation helicases are first loaded as head-to-head double hexamers on double-stranded (ds) DNA origins and then initiate S-phase DNA melting during licensed (once per cell cycle) replication. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) large T (LT) helicase oncoprotein similarly binds and melts its own 98-bp origin but replicates multiple times in a single cell cycle. To examine the actions of this unlicensed viral helicase, we quantitated multimerization of MCV LT molecules as they assembled on MCV DNA origins using real-time single-molecule microscopy. MCV LT formed highly stable double hexamers having 17-fold longer mean lifetime (τ, >1,500 s) on DNA than single hexamers. Unexpectedly, partial MCV LT assembly without double-hexamer formation was sufficient to melt origin dsDNA as measured by RAD51, RPA70, or S1 nuclease cobinding. DNA melting also occurred with truncated MCV LT proteins lacking the helicase domain, but was lost from a protein without the multimerization domain that could bind only as a monomer to DNA. SV40 polyomavirus LT also multimerized to the MCV origin without forming a functional hexamer but still melted origin DNA. MCV origin melting did not require ATP hydrolysis and occurred for both MCV and SV40 LT proteins using the nonhydrolyzable ATP analog, adenylyl-imidodiphosphate (AMP-PNP). LT double hexamers formed in AMP-PNP, and melted DNA, consistent with direct LT hexamer assembly around single-stranded (ss) DNA without the energy-dependent dsDNA-to-ssDNA melting and remodeling steps used by cellular helicases. These results indicate that LT multimerization rather than helicase activity is required for origin DNA melting during unlicensed virus replication.

Regulation of Transcriptional Activity of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Large T-Antigen by PKA-Mediated Phosphorylation.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the major cause of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), an aggressive skin cancer. MCPyV large T-antigen (LTag) and small T-antigen (sTag) are the main oncoproteins involved in MCPyV-induced MCC. A hallmark of MCPyV-positive MCC cells is the expression of a C-terminal truncated LTag. Protein kinase A (PKA) plays a fundamental role in a variety of biological processes, including transcription by phosphorylating and thereby regulating the activity of transcription factors. As MCPyV LTag has been shown to be phosphorylated and acts as a transcription factor for the viral early and late promoter, we investigated whether LTag can be phosphorylayted by PKA, and whether this affects the transcript activity of LTag. Using a phosphorylation prediction algorithm, serine 191, 203, and 265 were identified as putative phosphorylation sites for PKA. Mass spectrometry of in vitro PKA-phosphorylated peptides confirmed phosphorylation of S203 and S265, but not S191. Full-length LTag inhibited early and late promoter activity of MCPyV, whereas the truncated MKL2 LTag variant stimulated both promoters. Single non-phosphorylable, as well as phosphomimicking mutations did not alter the inhibitory effect of full-length LTag. However, the non-phosphorylable mutations abrogated transactivation of the MCPyV promoters by MKL2 LTag, whereas phosphomimicking substitutions restored the ability of MKL2 LTag to activate the promoters. Triple LTag and MKL2 LTag mutants had the same effect as the single mutants. Activation of the PKA signaling pathway did not enhance MCPyV promoter activity, nor did it affect LTag expression levels in MCPyV-positive Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) cells. Our results show that phosphorylation of truncated LTag stimulates viral promoter activity, which may contribute to higher levels of the viral oncoproteins LTag and sTag. Interfering with PKA-induced LTag phosphorylation/activity may be a therapeutic strategy to treat MCPyV-positive MCC patients.

Mammary Tumor Growth and Proliferation Are Dependent on Growth Hormone in Female SV40 C3(1) T-Antigen Mice.

Female SV40 C3(1) T-antigen (C3(1)/TAg) transgenic mice develop mammary tumors that are molecularly similar to human basal-like breast cancers with 100% incidence at 16 weeks of age. To determine the requirement for growth hormone (GH) signaling in these tumors, genetic crosses were used to create cohorts of female mice that were homozygous for a floxed growth hormone receptor (Ghr) gene and carried one copy each of the Rosa-Cre-ERT2 transgene and the C3(1)/TAg transgene (Ghrflox/flox; Rosa-Cre-ERT2; C3(1)/TAg+/0 mice). When the largest mammary tumor reached 200 mm3, mice were treated with tamoxifen to delete Ghr or with vehicle as a control. An additional group of Ghrflox/flox; C3(1)/TAg+/0 mice were also treated with tamoxifen when the largest mammary tumor reached 200 mm3 as a control for the effects of tamoxifen. After 3 weeks, tumors in mice in which Ghr was deleted began to shrink while vehicle and tamoxifen treatment control mouse tumors continued to grow. Pathological analysis of tumors revealed similar growth patterns and varying levels of necrosis throughout all groups. A decrease in cancer cell proliferation in Ghr-/- tumors relative to controls was observed as measured by Ki67 immunohistochemistry labeling index. These data suggest that even established C3(1)/TAg mammary tumors are dependent on the GH/IGF-1 axis.

Merkel cell polyomavirus large T antigen binding to pRb promotes skin hyperplasia and tumor development.

Clear evidence supports a causal link between Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) and the highly aggressive human skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Integration of viral DNA into the human genome facilitates continued expression of the MCPyV small tumor (ST) and large tumor (LT) antigens in virus-positive MCCs. In MCC tumors, MCPyV LT is truncated in a manner that renders the virus unable to replicate yet preserves the LXCXE motif that facilitates its binding to and inactivation of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (pRb). We previously developed a MCPyV transgenic mouse model in which MCC tumor-derived ST and truncated LT expression were targeted to the stratified epithelium of the skin, causing epithelial hyperplasia, increased proliferation, and spontaneous tumorigenesis. We sought to determine if any of these phenotypes required the association between the truncated MCPyV LT and pRb. Mice were generated in which K14-driven MCPyV ST/LT were expressed in the context of a homozygous RbΔLXCXE knock-in allele that attenuates LT-pRb interactions through LT's LXCXE motif. We found that many of the phenotypes including tumorigenesis that develop in the K14-driven MCPyV transgenic mice were dependent upon LT's LXCXE-dependent interaction with pRb. These findings highlight the importance of the MCPyV LT-pRb interaction in an in vivo model for MCPyV-induced tumorigenesis.

Establishment of Down's syndrome periodontal ligament cells by transfection with SV40T-Ag and hTERT.

Down's syndrome is one of the most common human congenital genetic diseases and affected patients have increased risk of periodontal disease. To examine involvement of the disease with periodontal disease development, we established immortalized periodontal ligament cells obtained from a Down's syndrome patient by use of SV40T-Ag and hTERT gene transfection. Expressions of SV40T-Ag and hTERT were observed in periodontal ligament cell-derived immortalized cells established from healthy (STPDL) and Down's syndrome patient (STPDLDS) samples. Primary cultured periodontal ligament cells obtained from a healthy subject (pPDL) had a limited number of population doublings (< 40), while STPDL and STPDLDS cells continued to grow with more than 80 population doublings. Primary cultured periodontal ligament cells obtained from the patient showed a chromosome pattern characteristic of Down's syndrome with trisomy 21, whereas STPDLDS samples showed a large number of abnormal chromosomes in those results. Gene expression analysis revealed that expression of DSCR-1 in STPDLDS is greater than that in STPDL. These results suggest that the newly established STPDLDS cell line may be a useful tool for study of periodontal disease in Down's syndrome patients.

Detailed chromosome analysis of wild-type, immortalized fibroblasts with SV40T, E6E7, combinational introduction of cyclin dependent kinase 4, cyclin D1, telomerase reverse transcriptase.

Cell immortalization enables us to expand the cultured cell infinitely. However, the process of immortalization sometimes changes the nature of the original cell. In this study, we established immortalized embryonic fibroblasts with oncogenic SV40T and human papilla virus-derived E6E7, combinational expression of mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), cyclin D1, and telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) from identical primary wild-type human embryonic fibroblasts (HE16). After the establishment of immortalized cells, we compared the details of chromosome condition with the G-banding and Q-banding methods. There is no example of detailed analysis so far about chromosome abnormalities, such as trisomy, ring chromosome, reciprocal translocation, and dicentric chromosomes. The detailed chromosome analysis revealed that immortalized cells with SV40T and E6E7 showed intensive chromosome abnormalities, such as gain or loss of the chromosomes all through the genome. Furthermore, we detected that the incidence of chromosome abnormities in the immortalized cell with the combinational introduction of R24C mutant of CDK4, cyclin D1, and TERT is almost identical to that of wild-type cell. Furthermore, short tandem repeat analysis demonstrated that the origin of K4DT cell is primary HE16. These results showed that cellular immortalization with CDK4, cyclin D1, and TERT is more advantageous in keeping the chromosome's original condition than oncogenic immortalization methods.

Electroporation-Based ex Vivo Gene Delivery into Dendritic Cells by Anionic Polymer-Coated Versatile Nuclear Localization Signal/pDNA Complex.

In this study, we focused on a nuclear localization signal (NLS)-based versatile peptide vector, designed by us, combined with electroporation (EP) to establish an efficient gene delivery system to non-dividing or slow growing dendritic cells. We determined the intranuclear transport, gene expression, and cell viability in JAWS II mouse dendritic cells transfected with the green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression plasmid DNA alone (naked pEGFP); positive charged complex of NLS derivative STR-CH2SV40H2C, and pEGFP (binary complex); or negative charged complex of the binary complex with a biocompatible polyanion, γ-polyglutamic acid (ternary complex) combined with or without EP application. Although the binary complex showed higher nuclear transport and GFP expression in the absence of EP than those for naked pEGFP, the combination of EP significantly decreased the cell viability and did not improve the efficiency of compared gene expression. However, in the ternary complex, the intranuclear transport and GFP expression efficiency were significantly higher than those of naked pEGFP and the binary complex when combined with EP, and there was no decrease in cell viability. The results suggest that polyanion-coated ternary complex with EP is useful for non-viral gene delivery system into non-dividing cells for ex vivo gene/cell therapy.

Slit2-Mediated Metabolic Reprogramming in Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages Enhances Antitumor Immunity.

Slit2 exerts antitumor effects in various cancers; however, the underlying mechanism, especially its role in regulating the immune, especially in the bone marrow niche, system is still unknown. Elucidating the behavior of macrophages in tumor progression can potentially improve immunotherapy. Using a spontaneous mammary tumor virus promoter-polyoma middle T antigen (PyMT) breast cancer mouse model, we observed that Slit2 increased the abundance of antitumor M1 macrophage in the bone marrow upon differentiation in vitro. Moreover, myeloablated PyMT mice injected with Slit2-treated bone marrow allografts showed a marked reduction in tumor growth, with enhanced recruitment of M1 macrophage in their tumor stroma. Mechanistic studies revealed that Slit2 significantly enhanced glycolysis and reduced fatty acid oxidation in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Slit2 treatment also altered mitochondrial respiration metabolites in macrophages isolated from healthy human blood that were treated with plasma from breast cancer patients. Overall, this study, for the first time, shows that Slit2 increases BMDM polarization toward antitumor phenotype by modulating immune-metabolism. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that soluble Slit2 could be developed as novel therapeutic strategy to enhance antitumor immune response.

Deletion of Col15a1 Modulates the Tumour Extracellular Matrix and Leads to Increased Tumour Growth in the MMTV-PyMT Mouse Mammary Carcinoma Model.

Basement membrane (BM) zone-associated collagen XV (ColXV) has been shown to suppress the malignancy of tumour cells, and its restin domain can inhibit angiogenesis. In human breast cancer, as well as in many other human carcinomas, ColXV is lost from the epithelial BM zone prior to tumour invasion. Here, we addressed the roles of ColXV in breast carcinogenesis using the transgenic MMTV-PyMT mouse mammary carcinoma model. We show here for the first time that the inactivation of Col15a1 in mice leads to changes in the fibrillar tumour matrix and to increased mammary tumour growth. ColXV is expressed by myoepithelial and endothelial cells in mammary tumours and is lost from the ductal BM along with the loss of the myoepithelial layer during cancer progression while persisting in blood vessels and capillaries, even in invasive tumours. However, despite the absence of anti-angiogenic restin domain, neovascularisation was reduced rather than increased in the ColXV-deficient mammary tumours compared to controls. We also show that, in robust tumour cell transplantation models or in a chemical-induced fibrosarcoma model, the inactivation of Col15a1 does not affect tumour growth or angiogenesis. In conclusion, our results support the proposed tumour suppressor function of ColXV in mammary carcinogenesis and reveal diverse roles of this collagen in different cancer types.

A Milk-Fat Based Diet Increases Metastasis in the MMTV-PyMT Mouse Model of Breast Cancer.

A high-fat diet (HFD) and obesity are risk factors for many diseases including breast cancer. This is particularly important with close to 40% of the current adult population being overweight or obese. Previous studies have implicated that Mediterranean diets (MDs) partially protect against breast cancer. However, to date, the links between diet and breast cancer progression are not well defined. Therefore, to begin to define and assess this, we used an isocaloric control diet (CD) and two HFDs enriched with either olive oil (OOBD, high in oleate, and unsaturated fatty acid in MDs) or a milk fat-based diet (MFBD, high in palmitate and myristate, saturated fatty acids in Western diets) in a mammary polyomavirus middle T antigen mouse model (MMTV-PyMT) of breast cancer. Our data demonstrate that neither MFBD or OOBD altered the growth of primary tumors in the MMTV-PyMT mice. The examination of lung metastases revealed that OOBD mice exhibited fewer surface nodules and smaller metastases when compared to MFBD and CD mice. These data suggest that different fatty acids found in different sources of HFDs may alter breast cancer metastasis.

Generation, Characterization, and Application of Inducible Proliferative Adult Human Epicardium-Derived Cells.

RATIONALE: In recent decades, the great potential of human epicardium-derived cells (EPDCs) as an endogenous cell source for cardiac regeneration has been recognized. The limited availability and low proliferation capacity of primary human EPDCs and phenotypic differences between EPDCs obtained from different individuals hampers their reproducible use for experimental studies. AIM: To generate and characterize inducible proliferative adult human EPDCs for use in fundamental and applied research. METHODS AND RESULTS: Inducible proliferation of human EPDCs was achieved by doxycycline-controlled expression of simian virus 40 large T antigen (LT) with a repressor-based lentiviral Tet-On system. In the presence of doxycycline, these inducible EPDCs (iEPDCs) displayed high and long-term proliferation capacity. After doxycycline removal, LT expression ceased and the iEPDCs regained their cuboidal epithelial morphology. Similar to primary EPDCs, iEPDCs underwent an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) after stimulation with transforming growth factor ß3. This was confirmed by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of epithelial and mesenchymal marker gene expression and (immuno) cytochemical staining. Collagen gel-based cell invasion assays demonstrated that mesenchymal iEPDCs, like primary EPDCs, possess increased invasion and migration capacities as compared to their epithelial counterparts. Mesenchymal iEPDCs co-cultured with sympathetic ganglia stimulated neurite outgrowth similarly to primary EPDCs. CONCLUSION: Using an inducible LT expression system, inducible proliferative adult human EPDCs were generated displaying high proliferative capacity in the presence of doxycycline. These iEPDCs maintain essential epicardial characteristics with respect to morphology, EMT ability, and paracrine signaling following doxycycline removal. This renders iEPDCs a highly useful new in vitro model for studying human epicardial properties.

Porcine pancreatic ductal epithelial cells transformed with KRASG12D and SV40T are tumorigenic.

We describe our initial studies in the development of an orthotopic, genetically defined, large animal model of pancreatic cancer. Primary pancreatic epithelial cells were isolated from pancreatic duct of domestic pigs. A transformed cell line was generated from these primary cells with oncogenic KRAS and SV40T. The transformed cell lines outperformed the primary and SV40T immortalized cells in terms of proliferation, population doubling time, soft agar growth, transwell migration and invasion. The transformed cell line grew tumors when injected subcutaneously in nude mice, forming glandular structures and staining for epithelial markers. Future work will include implantation studies of these tumorigenic porcine pancreatic cell lines into the pancreas of allogeneic and autologous pigs. The resultant large animal model of pancreatic cancer could be utilized for preclinical research on diagnostic, interventional, and therapeutic technologies.

The transcriptome of wild-type and immortalized corneal epithelial cells.

Cellular immortalization enables indefinite expansion of cultured cells. However, the process of cell immortalization sometimes changes the original nature of primary cells. In this study, we performed expression profiling of poly A-tailed RNA from primary and immortalized corneal epithelial cells expressing Simian virus 40 large T antigen (SV40) or the combination of mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), cyclin D1, and telomere reverse transcriptase (TERT). Furthermore, we studied the expression profile of SV40 cells cultured in medium with or without serum. The profiling of whole expression pattern revealed that immortalized corneal epithelial cells with SV40 showed a distinct expression pattern from wild-type cells regardless of the presence or absence of serum, while corneal epithelial cells with combinatorial expression showed an expression pattern relatively closer to that of wild-type cells.

MRCKα Is Dispensable for Breast Cancer Development in the MMTV-PyMT Model.

MRCKα is a ubiquitously expressed serine/threonine kinase involved in cell contraction and F-actin turnover, which is highly amplified in human breast cancer and part of a gene expression signature for bad prognosis. Nothing is known about the in vivo function of MRCKα. To explore MRCKα function in development and in breast cancer, we generated mice lacking a functional MRCKα gene. Mice were born close to the Mendelian ratio and showed no obvious phenotype including a normal mammary gland formation. Assessing breast cancer development using the transgenic MMTV-PyMT mouse model, loss of MRCKα did not affect tumor onset, tumor growth and metastasis formation. Deleting MRCKα and its related family member MRCKß in two triple-negative breast cancer cell lines resulted in reduced invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells, but did not affect migration of 4T1 cells. Further genomic analysis of human breast cancers revealed that MRCKα is frequently co-amplified with the oncogenes ARID4B and AKT3 which might contribute to the prognostic value of MRCKα expression. Collectively, these data suggest that MRCKα might be a prognostic marker for breast cancer, but probably of limited functional importance.

Pituitary Tumors and Immortalized Cell Lines Generated by Cre-Inducible Expression of SV40 T Antigen.

Targeted oncogenesis is the process of driving tumor formation by engineering transgenic mice that express an oncogene under the control of a cell-type specific promoter. Such tumors can be adapted to cell culture, providing immortalized cell lines. To make it feasible to follow the process of tumorigenesis and increase the opportunity for generating cell lines, we developed a mouse strain that expresses SV40 T antigens in response to Cre-recombinase. Using CRISPR/Cas9 we inserted a cassette with coding sequences for SV40 T antigens and an internal ribosome entry site with green fluorescent protein cassette (IRES-GFP) into the Rosa26 locus, downstream from a stop sequence flanked by loxP sites: Rosa26LSL-SV40-GFP. These mice were mated with previously established Prop1-cre and Tshb-cre transgenic lines. Both the Rosa26LSL-SV40-GFP/+; Prop1-cre and Rosa26LSL-SV40-GFP/+; Tshb-cre mice developed fully penetrant dwarfism and large tumors by 4 weeks. Tumors from both of these mouse lines were adapted to growth in cell culture. We have established a progenitor-like cell line (PIT-P1) that expresses Sox2 and Pitx1, and a thyrotrope-like cell line (PIT-T1) that expresses Pou1f1 and Cga. These studies demonstrate the utility of the novel, Rosa26LSL-SV40-GFP mouse line for reliable targeted oncogenesis and development of unique cell lines.

Targeting the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Signaling Pathway in Breast Cancer Development.

Activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through environmental exposure to known human carcinogens including dioxins can lead to the promotion of breast cancer. While the repressor protein of the AhR (AhRR) blocks the canonical AhR pathway, the function of AhRR in the development of breast cancer is not well-known. In the current study we examined the impact of suppressing AhR activity using its dedicated repressor protein AhRR. AhRR is a putative tumor suppressor and is silenced in several cancer types, including breast, where its loss correlates with shorter patient survival. Using the AhRR transgenic mouse, we demonstrate that AhRR overexpression opposes AhR-driven and inflammation-induced growth of mammary tumors in two different murine models of breast cancer. These include a syngeneic model using E0771 mammary tumor cells as well as the Polyoma Middle T antigen (PyMT) transgenic model. Further AhRR overexpression or knockout of AhR in human breast cancer cells enhanced apoptosis induced by chemotherapeutics and inhibited the growth of mouse mammary tumor cells. This study provides the first in vivo evidence that AhRR suppresses mammary tumor development and suggests that strategies which lead to its functional restoration and expression may have therapeutic benefit.

Analysis of protein determinants of host-specific infection properties of polyomaviruses using machine learning.

BACKGROUND: The large tumor antigen (LT-Ag) and major capsid protein VP1 are known to play important roles in determining the host-specific infection properties of polyomaviruses (PyVs). OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the physicochemical properties of amino acids of LT-Ag and VP1 that have important effects on host specificity, as well as classification techniques used to predict PyV hosts. METHODS: We collected and used reference sequences of 86 viral species for analysis. Based on the clustering pattern of the reconstructed phylogenetic tree, the dataset was divided into three groups: mammalian, avian, and fish. We then used random forest (RF), naïve Bayes (NB), and k-nearest neighbors (kNN) algorithms for host classification. RESULTS: Among the three algorithms, classification accuracy using kNN was highest in both LT-Ag (ACC = 98.83) and VP1 (ACC = 96.51). The amino acid physicochemical property most strongly correlated with host classification was charge, followed by solvent accessibility, polarity, and hydrophobicity in LT-Ag. However, in VP1, amino acid composition showed the highest correlation with host classification, followed by charge, normalized van der Waals volume, and solvent accessibility. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study suggest the possibility of determining or predicting the host range and infection properties of PyVs at the molecular level by identifying the host species of active and emerging PyVs that exhibit different infection properties among diverse host species. Structural and biochemical differences of LT-Ag and VP1 proteins in host species that reflect these amino acid properties can be considered primary factors that determine the host specificity of PyV.

Insights from transgenic mouse models of PyMT-induced breast cancer: recapitulating human breast cancer progression in vivo.

Breast cancer is associated with the second highest cancer-associated deaths worldwide. Therefore, understanding the key events that determine breast cancer progression, modulation of the tumor-microenvironment and metastasis, which is the main cause of cancer-associated death, are of great importance. The mammary specific polyomavirus middle T antigen overexpression mouse model (MMTV-PyMT), first published in 1992, is the most commonly used genetically engineered mouse model (GEMM) for cancer research. Mammary lesions arising in MMTV-PyMT mice follow similar molecular and histological progression as human breast tumors, making it an invaluable tool for cancer researchers and instrumental in understanding tumor biology. In this review, we will highlight key studies that demonstrate the utility of PyMT derived GEMMs in understanding the molecular basis of breast cancer progression, metastasis and highlight its use as a pre-clinical tool for therapeutic discovery.