Dance for Parkinson, multifaceted experiences of persons living with Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Dance classes for people with Parkinson's Disease (PD) are offered worldwide; however, further studies are needed to explore patients' experiences of how dance affects well-being. PURPOSE: To explore how Dance for Parkinson (Dance for PD) is experienced, and how it contributes to the well-being and health of participants in Sweden. METHODS: This qualitative study collected data from four focus groups. Participants were asked how dance classes impacted their well-being, and their ability to perform activities of daily life. The focus groups were recorded and transcribed. Data were analysed using content analysis, meaning units were coded, and codes were coalesced into categories from which themes were abstracted. RESULTS: Dance for PD provided a multifaceted experience related to social relationships, aesthetic context, feelings of wellbeing and the physical experience of dancing. The main theme contained four sub-themes: Connectedness, Pleasure and glamour, Well-being in mind and body and Customized movements. CONCLUSION: The present study highlights that health and well-being are improved by Dance for PD. It is an enjoyable activity that meets the specific needs of persons living with the consequences of PD and should therefore be promoted by occupational therapists.

Development and application of a learning enjoyment scale for pedagogical activities.

The impact of learning enjoyment on motivation, enthusiasm, and overall learning experiences is significant. Previous studies, lacking an unbiased tool for measuring enjoyment and confronting various influencing factors, produced conflicting results regarding enjoyment levels in different instructional methods. Hence, we developed a learning enjoyment scale for evaluating both active and passive educational activities. We applied the developed scale to 112 first-year medical and dental students to assess their enjoyment during didactic physiology lectures and explored possible associated factors. Within this data note, we present students' responses to the developed LES. The LES encompasses six dimensions: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, concentration, and enjoyment. Students provided ratings for each dimension on a five-point Likert scale, spanning from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The cumulative scores across the six dimensions range from a minimum of 6 to a maximum of 30. These total scores can be categorized as excellent (> 24), acceptable (18-24), or low (< 18). The second section of the dataset examines specific factors influencing overall enjoyment, such as teacher proficiency, topic difficulty, active student participation, objectives fulfillment, low stress levels, and self-perceived acquisition of skills. In addition to objective measurement of students' enjoyment level, the LES can be utilized for quantitative cross-comparisons between different teaching activities. By employing this dataset, we will undertake an analysis to determine the internal consistency of the Learning Enjoyment Scale (LES), with the anticipation that the outcomes will be published in another venue.

The influence of enjoyment, boredom, and burnout on EFL achievement: Based on latent moderated structural equation modeling.

In recent years, the boom in the field of positive psychology in second language acquisition research has seen an increasing number of scholars focusing on the individual well-being of second language learners alongside their learning effectiveness. Despite this growing interest, there is a need to further investigate the specific emotional factors influencing academic achievement in foreign language learning. This study investigates the impact of three emotions-enjoyment, boredom, and burnout-on academic achievement, and the moderating role of academic buoyancy. Data were collected from 563 college English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) students from China's mainland using latent moderated structural equation modeling with Mplus. The results of the latent bivariate correlation analysis showed significant correlations between EFL learning emotions, academic buoyancy, and test performance. In the latent moderated structural equations model, enjoyment and burnout predicted test performance. Moreover, academic buoyancy moderated the relationships between enjoyment and test performance, and between burnout and test performance. EFL test performance was highest when enjoyment and buoyancy were both high, or when burnout and buoyancy were both low. These findings highlight the importance of fostering positive emotions and resilience in language learners to enhance their academic performance, offering valuable insights for educators and policymakers aiming to improve foreign language education.

The link between childhood physical activity enjoyment and adult kinesiophobia in individuals with chronic low back pain.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between childhood physical activity enjoyment and current kinesiophobia among individuals with chronic low back pain (CLBP), considering the mediating influence of adult physical activity. METHODS: We recruited 648 adults (474 males, 174 females) with CLBP through an online platform. Of these, 99.1% (n = 642) were aged 18-60 years, and 0.9% (n = 6) were older than 60 years. Childhood physical activity enjoyment was retrospectively assessed using a single-item question to gauge participants' enjoyment during primary school. Kinesiophobia was measured with the 11-item Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK-11), and physical activity was assessed focusing on walking, moderate, and vigorous physical activities. Age, sex, education, and income served as control variables in the analysis. RESULTS: A significant negative association was found between childhood physical activity enjoyment and adult kinesiophobia. Additionally, childhood physical activity enjoyment was positively associated with adult physical activity across the three types of physical activities. In the adjusted mediation model, walking was identified as the only statistically significant partial mediator. CONCLUSION: The findings highlight the long-term protective role of childhood physical activity enjoyment against the development of kinesiophobia in adulthood. Walking, in particular, holds unique therapeutic potential, emphasizing the importance of fostering physical activity enjoyment early in life for sustained physical activity and reduced risk of kinesiophobia among CLBP patients.

Beyond Distracted Eating: Cognitive Distraction Downregulates Odor Pleasantness and Interacts with Weight Status.

Considering the widespread issue of distracted eating, our study investigates how cognitive distraction influences the sensory perception of food-related odors among individuals with varying weight statuses. We conducted an exploratory, randomized, and cross-sectional experimental study, using the Tetris game to simulate real-life cognitive distraction, incorporating two distraction levels (low and high) and presenting five distinct odors. A total of 59 participants, categorized into a lean (n = 30) and overweight/obese group (n = 29) based on their body mass index (BMI), received odor stimuli while playing Tetris at low and high difficulty, corresponding to low and high distraction levels, respectively. Participants subsequently rated odor intensity and pleasantness under the two cognitive distraction conditions. Respiratory movements were monitored to ensure accurate olfactory stimulation. Our findings revealed no significant difference in odor intensity ratings across distraction levels (p = 0.903). However, there was a significant reduction in odor pleasantness under high cognitive distraction (p = 0.007), more pronounced in lean participants compared to those with an overweight status (p = 0.035). Additionally, an interaction between gender and cognitive distraction effects was observed in odor pleasantness perception. The differential effects of distraction across weight-status groups and genders are discussed in the context of hedonic motivation and compensatory mechanisms. This study sheds light onto the sensory mechanisms underlying distracted eating and could inform more personalized strategies for promoting healthier eating habits in a world dominated by distractions.

Understanding enjoyment within the context of the children-to-youth sport transition in Norwegian soccer: A mixed methods study.

Enjoyment has emerged as a critical factor in understanding dropout and participation in the Norwegian youth soccer context (Persson et al., 2020; Solstad et al., 2022). Moreover, the children-to-youth sport transition within this context represents a shift in underlying values and aims (Hjelseth, 2016). The purpose of this mixed methods study was thus to investigate youth soccer players' enjoyment within the children-to-youth sport transition context. The quantitative phase consisted of 214 soccer players (28.2 % girls, Mage = 12.56 years) who completed a questionnaire, and structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The quantitative data informed the selection of participants for qualitative interviews in the next phase. A total of 10 soccer players (6 boys and 4 girls) who had reported different levels of enjoyment were interviewed. Coding reliability thematic analysis was applied to analyze the qualitative data. The results indicated that expectation of success and the mastery-approach goal had a positive relationship with enjoyment. The qualitative data further revealed that love for the sport, being with friends, and learning and mastery were sources of enjoyment for the players. A key finding was that players experienced increased seriousness in the transition, which may have a negative impact on their enjoyment. In conclusion, coaches should emphasize players' expectations of success, learning, and intrapersonal mastery, while creating a team culture that values friendship and passion for the sport. These strategies can enhance enjoyment, potentially sustaining youth participation in soccer during the children-to-youth sport transition.

The pleasure of moving: A compositional data analysis of the association between replacing sedentary time with physical activity on affective valence in daily life.

Although the independent within-person association between physical activity and sedentary behaviour with valence in daily life has been extensively studied, few studies have used compositional data analysis to examine how different movement behaviour compositions are related to valence in daily life. This study aimed to examine the within-person association between wake-time movement behaviour compositions with affective valence and the extent to which replacing time spent sedentary with physical activity was associated with valence within individuals in daily life. A 7-day ecological momentary study design was used whereby 94 Canadian university students (Mage = 19.45, SD = 2.21, 78.7 % female) reported on affective valence using an adapted version of the Feeling Scale at 7 randomly timed prompts each day. In addition, activPAL accelerometers were worn continuously by participants on their right thigh for the duration of the study to determine time spent engaging in sedentary behaviours and physical activity. Compositional data analysis with isotemporal substitution models were used to examine the within-person association between movement behaviour compositions and affective valence. The within-person association between movement behaviours and affective valence was weak (r2 = 0.013). Nevertheless, engaging in less sedentary time than usual and instead engaging in physical activity was significantly related to more positive affective valence. Considering light intensity physical activity (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) separately, replacing time spent sedentary with time engaged in MVPA and LPA both had a significant positive association on affective valence, although the association with MVPA was stronger than the association with LPA. The results provide unique insights into how replacing sedentary time with physical activity in daily life, especially MVPA, may be associated with more feelings of pleasure. These results may be useful to help inform the development of just-in-time adaptive interventions.

State-dependent connectivity in auditory-reward networks predicts peak pleasure experiences to music.

Music can evoke pleasurable and rewarding experiences. Past studies that examined task-related brain activity revealed individual differences in musical reward sensitivity traits and linked them to interactions between the auditory and reward systems. However, state-dependent fluctuations in spontaneous neural activity in relation to music-driven rewarding experiences have not been studied. Here, we used functional MRI to examine whether the coupling of auditory-reward networks during a silent period immediately before music listening can predict the degree of musical rewarding experience of human participants (N = 49). We used machine learning models and showed that the functional connectivity between auditory and reward networks, but not others, could robustly predict subjective, physiological, and neurobiological aspects of the strong musical reward of chills. Specifically, the right auditory cortex-striatum/orbitofrontal connections predicted the reported duration of chills and the activation level of nucleus accumbens and insula, whereas the auditory-amygdala connection was associated with psychophysiological arousal. Furthermore, the predictive model derived from the first sample of individuals was generalized in an independent dataset using different music samples. The generalization was successful only for state-like, pre-listening functional connectivity but not for stable, intrinsic functional connectivity. The current study reveals the critical role of sensory-reward connectivity in pre-task brain state in modulating subsequent rewarding experience.

Chronic Itch Affects Patients' Ability to Experience Pleasure: Anhedonia in Itchy Disorders.

Anhedonia, the reduced ability to experience pleasure, is a prevalent symptom in various psychiatric disorders, but has not been investigated in dermatological conditions, particularly those characterized by chronic itch. This study aimed to examine the prevalence and clinical correlates of anhedonia in patients with chronic itch. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 137 patients with chronic itch, classified according to the International Forum for the Study of Itch (IFSI) classification. Anhedonia was assessed using the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) and Anticipatory and Consummatory Interpersonal Pleasure Scale (ACIPS). Itch severity, quality of life, and psychological distress were assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), Verbal Rating Scale (VRS), ItchyQoL, and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), respectively. The mean SHAPS score was 1.0 ± 1.7 points, and the mean ACIPS total score was 76.9 ± 16.2 points. In the study sample, 13.1% of patients were identified as anhedonic, with a higher prevalence observed in those with severe and very severe itch. Anhedonia was significantly correlated with itch severity (R = 0.2, p=0.02 for 24 h VASmean and SHAPS; R = 0.2, p = 0.01 for 24 h VASmax and SHAPS), anxiety symptoms (R = 0.3, p < 0.001 for SHAPS and HADS-anxiety), depression symptoms (R = 0.4, p < 0.001 for SHAPS and HADS-depression), and impairment in quality of life (R = 0.2, p = 0.014 for SHAPS and ItchyQoL). Anhedonia is a significant and prevalent aspect of psychological distress in patients with chronic itch. Addressing this symptom may not only improve patients' overall mental health but also enhance the effectiveness of treatments for chronic itch. Future research is needed to elucidate further the mechanisms underlying the relationship between anhedonia and chronic itch and to develop targeted interventions for this population.

Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence measured with aligned instruments: Differences in (enjoyment of) physical fitness.

A person-centred approach was used to examine whether children with various actual and perceived motor competence (AMC and PMC) profiles differ in (enjoyment of) physical fitness (PF). The strength of the relationship between AMC and PMC was also assessed through aligned assessment tools. A sample of 287 7-11-year-old children (47.40% boys, Mage = 8.92 ± .78 years) was assessed on AMC with the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder (KTK3), and on PF with six validated fitness tests. Animated videos fully aligned with the AMC- and PF-tests were used to assess children's PMC and enjoyment of PF, respectively. Cluster analyses identified one convergent (i.e. high AMC-high PMC) and three partially convergent AMC-PMC profiles (i.e. low AMC-high PMC). Furthermore, children with relatively high AMC (i.e. high-average profile) reported higher PF (F = 30.99, p < .001), while children with relatively high PMC (i.e. average-high profile) reported higher enjoyment of PF (F = 9.02, p < .001). The correlation between AMC and PMC was significant but weak (r = .16). Overall, it seems important to invest in both children's AMC and PMC as they may support a higher (enjoyment of) PF, potentially leading to higher PA-levels.

When it comes to physical fitness, actual motor competence rather than perceived motor competence seemed to play the biggest role. As extra high perceived motor competence did not add additional benefits in terms of physical fitness, there might have been a ceiling effect of perceived motor competence.When looking at enjoyment of physical fitness, perceived motor competence seemed to be a more important factor than actual motor competence. However, profile analyses revealed that a relatively high perceived motor competence score may not fully compensate the loss of enjoyment in physical fitness when children's actual motor competence is relatively low.

Associations of physical activity and physical education enjoyment with self-concept domains among Hungarian adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Sport enjoyment is one of the most important factors in physical activity (PA) and physical education (PE) domains. It is not only beneficial for regular participation but also has a positive effect on mental health. Due to these benefits, this study aims to understand the relationships between PA, two forms of enjoyment, and the dimension of self-concept. METHODS: The sample consisted of 315 students (Mage=12.63). The Self-Description Questionnaire-I was used to measure the domains of self-concept. Enjoyment was measured with two scales. The Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale reflects extracurricular PA enjoyment, and the Factors Influencing Enjoyment of Physical Education Questionnaire reflects school PE enjoyment. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to assess vigorous, moderate, and walking types of extracurricular PA enjoyment. RESULTS: Hierarchical multivariate regression analysis revealed that vigorous PA predicted physical ability (ß = 0.19) and physical appearance (ß = 0.15). PA enjoyment was a significant predictor of general self-concept (ß = 0.29), physical ability (ß = 0.28), physical appearance (ß = 0.16), peer relation (ß = 0.16), and parental relations (ß = 0.14). PE enjoyment significantly predicted general school (ß = 0.17), physical ability (ß = 0.27), peer relations (ß = 0.21) and parental relations (ß = 0.22). Furthermore, boys scored at a higher level on most of self-concept domains. CONCLUSIONS: The present study suggested that enjoyment plays a more important role in self-concept than PA. PE enjoyment mainly strengthens boys' self-concept, but PA enjoyment is an important predictor of general self-concept in both genders. It is concluded that extracurricular PA enjoyment is beneficial, but increasing enjoyment of physical education could increase girls' self-concepts as well.

Individualized pleasure-oriented exercise sessions, exercise frequency, and affective outcomes: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Affective responses are increasingly recognized as potentially effective intervention targets that may facilitate exercise and physical activity behavior change. While emerging correlational evidence suggests that more pleasant affective responses are associated with higher participation and adherence, experimental evidence remains scarce. In light of this, we conducted a preregistered, pragmatic, single-blinded, superiority randomized controlled trial with two parallel groups, with the goal of determining the impact of an individualized exercise-intensity prescription targeting pleasure on exercise frequency. METHODS: Forty-seven non-regular exercisers were randomized into two groups. For both groups, the intervention consisted of three exercise sessions based on the Frequency-Intensity-Time-Type (FITT) principle. However, the experimental group also received an individualized intensity prescription based on prior assessment of preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity, as well as instructions emphasizing the promotion of pleasure as a basis for self-regulating exercise intensity. The primary outcome was gymnasium attendance over an eight-week follow-up period. Secondary outcomes were affective valence and arousal, post-exercise enjoyment, core affective exercise experiences, and anticipated and remembered affect. RESULTS: Forty-six participants were retained for analysis (Mage = 32.00; SD = 8.62 years; 56.5% female). Compared to the control group, the experimental group exhibited 77% higher session attendance (14.35 vs. 8.13 sessions) over the eight-week follow-up period (group main effect p = .018, η2p = .120; Cohen's d ranged from 0.28 to 0.91 during follow-up). Also, the experimental group reported higher levels of pleasure during the intervention sessions (for all group main effects, p < .001, η2p from .33 to .37) and higher levels of remembered pleasure (group main effect p = .021, η2p = .116) and anticipated pleasure (group main effect p = .022, η2p = .114). No harm was detected. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the practicality and effectiveness of an intervention aimed at enhancing affective responses to exercise in improving short-term session attendance. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrial.gov NCT05416593.

Alcohol and cannabis use in daily lives of college-attending young adults: Does co-use correspond to greater reported pleasure?

Co-use of alcohol and cannabis is prevalent and linked with heightened risk for substance-related harms. The current study investigated the role of substance-related pleasure as a reinforcing factor for co-use relative to alcohol or cannabis use. Specifically, we used data from a 21-day diary study of college students to examine day-level associations between co-use and self-reported substance-related pleasure (any, level of pleasure). Participants were 237 college students (65 % female sex at birth, ages 18-24) who reported 1+ alcohol and cannabis co-use occasion. Participants completed daily surveys across 21 consecutive days about yesterday's substance use and experiences of pleasure, yielding 2,086 daily surveys involving alcohol and/or cannabis use. Multilevel models indicated that odds of substance-related pleasure were higher on days with co-use relative to days with single-substance use, and level of pleasure was higher on co-use days relative to cannabis but not alcohol use days. Pleasure may serve as a reinforcing property of co-use that may be related to continued use despite experience of negative consequences. Intensity of pleasure related to co-use appears to be largely driven by use of alcohol. However, given mixed findings concerning level of pleasure, individuals may report co-use increases feelings of pleasure but do not actually experience more pleasure. Pleasure may serve as a viable target in future prevention and intervention programming targeting co-use.

Differential manifestations of anhedonia in people with social anhedonia and subsyndromal depression.

Empirical findings suggested that anhedonia, a reduced capability to access pleasure and a core symptom in both schizophrenia and the major depressive disorder, can be present in people with high levels of social anhedonia and people with subsyndromal depression. Few studies have adopted a multidimensional framework to investigate anhedonia in these subclinical samples. We recruited 35 participants with high social anhedonia (SA), 53 participants with subsyndromal depression (SD), 20 participants with co-occurrence of both traits (CO), and 47 participants with low levels of both traits (CN) to complete a self-report questionnaire capturing the pleasure experience, and the Monetary Incentives Delay (MID) Task and the Social Incentives Delay (SID) Task capturing the motivation of reward. Results indicated that people with SA, SD and CO exhibited lower abstract anticipatory pleasure compared to CN. Moreover, people with SD and CO exhibited specific impairment in response to social incentives. Together, our findings characterized the multidimensional features of anhedonia performances of subclinical samples with SA, SD and CO, which may contribute to the formulation of early identification of at-risk groups.

The origins and development of aesthetics.

All people (and some other animals) have aesthetic responses to sensory stimulation, responses of emotional pleasure or displeasure. These emotions vary from one person and culture to another, yet they share a common mechanism. To survive, an adaptive animal (as opposed to a tropic animal) needs to become comfortable with normality and to have slight abnormalities draw attention to themselves. Walking through a jungle you need to notice a tiger from a single stripe: if you must wait to see the whole animal, you are unlikely to survive. In Homo sapiens, the brain's adaptive neurochemistry does this naturally, partly because the brain's neuronal networks are structured to react efficiently to fractal structures, structures that shape much of nature. In addition, previous associations may turn a slight variation from normal into feelings of either pleasure or danger. The details of these responses-what is normal and what variations feel like-will depend upon an individual's experience, but the mechanism is the same, no matter whether a person is tasting a wine, seeing a face or landscape, or hearing a song. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sensing and feeling: an integrative approach to sensory processing and emotional experience'.

Predicting tingling sensations induced by autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) videos based on sound texture statistics: a comparison to pleasant feelings.

Sound serves as a potent medium for emotional well-being, with phenomena like the autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) showing a unique capacity for inducing relaxation and alleviating stress. This study aimed to understand how tingling sensations (and, for comparison, pleasant feelings) that such videos induce relate to acoustic features, using a broader range of ASMR videos as stimuli. The sound texture statistics and their timing predictive of tingling and pleasantness were identified through L1-regularized linear regression. Tingling was well-predicted (r = 0.52), predominantly by the envelope of frequencies near 5 kHz in the 1500 to 750 ms period before the response: stronger tingling was associated with a lower amplitude around the 5 kHz frequency range. This finding was further validated using an independent set of ASMR sounds. The prediction of pleasantness was more challenging (r = 0.26), requiring a longer effective time window, threefold that for tingling. These results enhance our understanding of how specific acoustic elements can induce tingling sensations, and how these elements differ from those that induce pleasant feelings. Our findings have potential applications in optimizing ASMR stimuli to improve quality of life and alleviate stress and anxiety, thus expanding the scope of ASMR stimulus production beyond traditional methods. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sensing and feeling: an integrative approach to sensory processing and emotional experience'.

Entactogen Effects of Ketamine: A Reverse-Translational Study.

OBJECTIVE: The authors sought to assess the prosocial, entactogen effects of ketamine. METHODS: Pleasure from social situations was assessed in a sample of participants with treatment-resistant depression from randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies, using four items of the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) at five time points over 1 week following treatment with ketamine (0.5 mg/kg intravenously) or placebo. The primary endpoint was postinfusion self-reported pleasure on the four SHAPS items pertaining to social situations, including the item on helping others, between the ketamine and placebo groups. In a rodent experiment, the impact of ketamine on helping behavior in rats was assessed using the harm aversion task. The primary endpoint was a reduction in lever response rate relative to baseline, which indicated the willingness of rats to forgo obtaining sucrose to help protect their cage mate from electric shock. RESULTS: Relative to placebo, ketamine increased ratings of feeling pleasure from being with family or close friends, seeing other people's smiling faces, helping others, and receiving praise, for 1 week following treatment. In the rodent experiment, during the harm aversion task, ketamine-treated rats maintained lower response rates relative to baseline to a greater extent than what was observed in vehicle-treated rats for 6 days posttreatment and delivered fewer shocks overall. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with treatment-resistant depression, ketamine treatment was associated with increased pleasure from social situations, such as feeling pleasure from helping others. Ketamine-treated rats were more likely to protect their cage mate from harm, at the cost of obtaining sucrose. These findings suggest that ketamine has entactogen effects.

Self-reported food liking and wanting: A factor analytic study of ratings across 49 consecutive days.

Reward responses to food are thought to play an important role in highly palatable food overconsumption. In animal models, food reward responses can be decoupled into unique "liking" (in the moment enjoyment) and "wanting" (motivation/craving) components. However, research on liking and wanting has been hampered by uncertainty regarding whether liking and wanting can be reliably separated in humans. We used factor analysis to test whether ratings of liking and wanting could be empirically separated in women assessed across 49 consecutive days. Female participants (N = 688; ages 15-30) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry reported liking and wanting of foods consumed that day, and wanting of foods not consumed that day, separately for sweets (e.g., cookies), fast food (e.g., French fries), carbohydrates (e.g., bread), and whole foods (fruit, plain chicken) each evening for 49 consecutive days. We examined both average levels and daily levels of liking/wanting across the 49-day period that captured individual differences in liking/wanting over time. Across both types of analyses, liking and wanting for foods that were eaten formed a single factor rather than separate, dissociable factors, while wanting of foods not eaten formed an independent factor. At the daily level, a liking/wanting factor emerged for each individual food category (e.g., liking/wanting sweets), whereas in average analyses, a single factor emerged that collapsed across all food types (i.e., liking/wanting of all foods). Results suggest individuals have difficulty distinguishing between liking and wanting of foods they have eaten on that day but may be able to more reliably separate wanting of foods they have not consumed.

Developmental relations of achievement goals and affect in physical education.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the developmental relationships between achievement goals and affect in school physical education. METHOD: The study sample comprised 1063 (girls 546) Finnish Grade 6 students (M = 12.27 years ± 0.33 at the beginning of the study). The participants in the study were asked to provide annual assessments about their perceptions of achievement goals, enjoyment, and anxiety. The assessments were conducted four times over three consecutive years. RESULTS: The results indicated that mastery-approach goals were positively associated with enjoyment (between-level), whereas both mastery-avoidance and performance-avoidance goals were positively associated with anxiety (between-level). Additionally, the associations between repeated measures (within-level) of mastery-approach goals and enjoyment were similar each year, whereas mastery- and performance-approach/avoidance goals were consistently associated with anxiety within the same year. Girls reported lower performance-approach goals and enjoyment but higher mastery-avoidance goals and anxiety than boys. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that mastery approach goals exhibit a positive correlation with favorable affective reactions, while performance-avoidance goals demonstrate a connection with maladaptive responses. Physical education teachers should endeavor to establish mastery-oriented goals for their students from the outset of the educational process.