Epidemiological, virological and clinical characterization of a Dengue/Zika outbreak in the Caribbean region of Costa Rica 2017-2018.

The increase in incidence and geographical expansion of viruses transmitted by the Aedes mosquitoes, such as dengue (DENV) and zika (ZIKV) in the Americas, represents a burden for healthcare systems in tropical and subtropical regions. These and other under-detected arboviruses co-circulate in Costa Rica, adding additional complexity to their management due to their shared epidemiological behavior and similarity of symptoms in early stages. Since diagnostics of febrile illness is mostly based on clinical symptoms alone, we gathered acute-phase serum and urine from 399 samples of acute dengue-like cases from two healthcare facilities of Costa Rica, during an outbreak of arboviruses from July 2017 to May 2018, and tested them using molecular and serological methods. The analyses showed that of the clinically presumptive arbovirus cases that were reported, only 39.4% (n=153) of the samples were confirmed positive by RT-PCR to be DENV (DENV (10.3%), CHIKV (0.2%), ZIKV (27.3%), or mixed infections (1.5%). RT-PCR for other alphaviruses and flaviviruses, and PCR for Leptospira sp were negative. Furthermore, to assess flavivirus positivity in post-acute patients, the negative sera were tested against Dengue-IgM. 20% of sera were found positive, confounding even more the definitive number of cases, and emphasizing the need of several distinct diagnostic tools for accurate diagnostics. Molecular characterization of the prM and E genes from isolated viruses revealed that the American/Asian genotype of DENV-2 and the Asian lineage of ZIKV were circulating during this outbreak. Two different clades of DENV-2 American/Asian genotype were identified to co-circulate in the same region and a difference in the platelet and leukocyte count was noted between people infected with each clade, suggesting a putative distinct virulence. Our study sheds light on the necessity for healthcare strategies in managing arbovirus outbreaks, emphasizing the importance of comprehensive molecular and serological diagnostic approaches, as well as molecular characterization. This approach aids in enhancing our understanding of the clinical and epidemiological aspects of arboviral diseases during outbreaks. Our research highlights the need to strengthen training programs for health professionals and the need to increase research-based on laboratory evidence for diagnostic accuracy, guidance, development and implementation of public health interventions and epidemiological surveillance.

What are the perceptions of faculty and academic leaders regarding the impact of accreditation on the continuous quality improvement process of undergraduate medical education programs at Caribbean medical schools?

BACKGROUND: Accreditation and regulation are meant for quality assurance in higher education. However, there is no guarantee that accreditation ensures quality improvement. The accreditation for Caribbean medical schools varies from island to island, and it could be mandatory or voluntary, depending on local government requirements. Caribbean medical schools recently attained accreditation status to meet the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) requirements by 2024. Literature suggests that accreditation impacts ECFMG certification rates and medical schools' educational processes. However, no such study has examined accreditation's impact on continuous quality improvement (CQI) in medical schools. This study aims to gather the perceptions and experiences of faculty members and academic leaders regarding the impact of accreditation on CQI across Caribbean medical schools. METHODS: This qualitative phenomenological study inquiries about the perceptions and experiences of faculty and academic leaders regarding accreditation's impact on CQI. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used. Participants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview method. Fifteen participants were interviewed across ten Caribbean medical schools representing accredited medical schools, accreditation denied medical schools, and schools that never applied for accreditation. Interviews were audio recorded, and thematic data analysis was conducted. RESULTS: Thematic analysis yielded six themes, including accreditation and CQI, CQI irrespective of accreditation, faculty engagement and faculty empowerment in the CQI process, collecting and sharing data, ECFMG 2024 requirements, and organizational structure of CQI. CONCLUSIONS: There is ongoing quality improvement at Caribbean medical schools, as perceived by faculty members and academic leaders. However, most of the change process is happening because of accreditation, and the quality improvement is due to external push such as accreditation rather than internal motivation. It is recommended that Caribbean medical schools promote internal quality improvement irrespective of accreditation and embrace the culture of CQI.

Quantifying stability and resilience of eco-social keystone species complexes for coastal marine ecosystems of the Caribbean Sea and eastern Pacific: applications in conservation and monitoring programmes.

The local stability and resilience of 13 eco-social keystone species complexes (eco-social KSCs)-considered as conservation and monitoring units-were quantified in coastal marine ecosystems located in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific. Based on Routh-Hurwitz's criterion and Levins' criteria, the eco-social KSCs corresponding to Islas Marietas National Park (Mexico) emerged as the most locally stable and resilient ecosystem. To the contrary, the eco-social KSCs determined for Guala Guala Bay (Chile) and Xcalak Reef National Park (Caribbean) were the least stable and resilient, respectively. In terms of sensitivity, the eco-social KSCs corresponding to El Cobre Bay (Chile) presented the greatest number of sensitive components. The ecological section of the KSCs is formed by a tri-trophic network, dominating self-negative feedbacks. In the case of the socio-economic section, the fisher could exhibit the three types of self-feedbacks, and instead, the demand should be controlled. The identification of eco-social KSCs and the quantification of their stabilities and resiliences allow us to approach ecosystem-based fisheries management under a climate change context. Therefore, we suggest assessing and monitoring the persistence of the eco-social KSCs herein analysed over time, as a way to conserve the fundamental network structure of these ecosystems intervened by fishing.This article is part of the theme issue 'Connected interactions: enriching food web research by spatial and social interactions'.

Status of the national immunization technical advisory groups in the Americas: recommendations for improvement / Estado actual de los grupos técnicos asesores nacionales sobre inmunización en la Región de las Américas: recomendaciones para su mejora / Situação dos Grupos Técnicos Assessores Nacionais sobre Imunização na Região das Américas: recomendações para melhorias

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To evaluate the structure and operation of national immunization technical advisory groups (NITAGs) in Latin America and the Caribbean and to make recommendations for improvement. Methods. A convenience sample of six current and eight former NITAG members representing 12 countries in the region were invited in 2022 to answer a web-based questionnaire on NITAG structure, organization, and procedures. The questionnaire used indicators similar to those in the Joint Reporting Form on Immunization. Participants were also asked about the role their NITAGs played in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) immunization policies. Results. Brazil, Dominican Republic, and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) reported not having an active NITAG. The nine active NITAGs are structured and organized according to World Health Organization and Pan American Health Organization recommendations, with variations between countries. Most NITAGs include representatives of the five recommended medical specialties with the participation of additional members possible. Only Bolivia (Plurinational State of) and Mexico have no explicit policy for managing members’ potential conflicts of interest. All NITAGs have an exclusively technical advisory role and generally meet once a quarter. Usually, NITAGs are asked by health ministries to analyze issues and make recommendations. All NITAGs, except for Peru’s, actively participated in supporting decision-making for immunization policy on COVID-19. Conclusions. NITAGs have successfully supported vaccine policy-making through evidence-based recommendations. However, improvement in their structure, operation, and transparency is needed to help them keep up with the rapidly evolving field of immunization. Research on the impact of NITAGs is important to support the development of recommendations for improvement.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Evaluar la estructura y el funcionamiento de los grupos técnicos asesores nacionales sobre inmunización (NITAG, por su sigla en inglés) en América Latina y el Caribe y formular recomendaciones para su mejora. Métodos. En el 2022, se seleccionó una muestra por conveniencia, formada por seis miembros actuales y ocho antiguos miembros de NITAG que representaban a 12 países de la Región, y se les invitó a responder un cuestionario en línea sobre la estructura, la organización y los procedimientos de los NITAG. El cuestionario utilizaba indicadores similares a los del formulario de notificación conjunta de datos sobre inmunización. También se preguntó a los participantes sobre el papel que desempeñaron sus NITAG en las políticas de inmunización contra la COVID-19. Resultados. Brasil, República Dominicana y Venezuela (República Bolivariana de) informaron que no tenían un NITAG activo. Los nueve NITAG activos están estructurados y organizados según las recomendaciones de la Organización Mundial de la Salud y la Organización Panamericana de la Salud, con diferencias entre los países. La mayoría de los NITAG cuentan con representantes de las cinco especialidades médicas recomendadas, con la posibilidad de participación de miembros adicionales. Solo Bolivia (Estado Plurinacional de) y México carecen de una política explícita para gestionar los posibles conflictos de intereses de los miembros. Todos los NITAG tienen una función exclusivamente de asesoramiento técnico y suelen reunirse en forma trimestral. Por lo general, los ministerios de salud les solicitan el análisis de problemas y la formulación de recomendaciones. Salvo en el caso de Perú, todos los NITAG participaron activamente en la facilitación de la toma de decisiones sobre políticas de inmunización contra la COVID-19. Conclusiones. Los NITAG han brindado apoyo con éxito a la formulación de políticas de vacunación mediante recomendaciones basadas en la evidencia. Sin embargo, es necesario mejorar su estructura, funcionamiento y transparencia para que puedan mantenerse al día en el campo de la inmunización en constante evolución. La investigación sobre el impacto de los NITAG es importante para respaldar la formulación de recomendaciones para su mejora.

[RESUMO]. Objetivos. Avaliar a estrutura e o funcionamento dos Grupos Técnicos Assessores Nacionais sobre Imunização (NITAGs, na sigla em inglês) na América Latina e no Caribe e fazer recomendações para melhorá-los. Métodos. Em 2022, uma amostra de conveniência de seis membros atuais e oito ex-membros de NITAGs, representando 12 países da Região, foi convidada a responder a um questionário on-line sobre a estrutura, a organização e os procedimentos dos NITAGs. O questionário usou indicadores semelhantes aos do formulário de notificação conjunta sobre imunização. Também se perguntou aos participantes sobre o papel que seus NITAGs haviam desempenhado nas políticas de imunização contra a doença pelo coronavírus 2019 (COVID-19). Resultados. O Brasil, a República Dominicana e a Venezuela (República Bolivariana da) informaram não ter um NITAG ativo. Os nove NITAGs ativos são estruturados e organizados de acordo com as recomendações da Organização Mundial da Saúde e da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde, com variações entre os países. A maioria dos NITAGs inclui representantes das cinco especialidades médicas recomendadas, sendo possível a participação de outros membros. Somente a Bolívia (Estado Plurinacional da) e o México não têm uma política explícita para gerenciar possíveis conflitos de interesse dos membros. Todos os NITAGs têm uma função exclusiva de assessoria técnica e geralmente se reúnem trimestralmente. Normalmente, os ministérios da Saúde solicitam aos NITAGs que analisem problemas e façam recomendações. Todos os NITAGs, exceto o do Peru, participaram ativamente no apoio ao processo decisório da política de imunização contra a COVID-19. Conclusões. Os NITAGs conseguiram apoiar a formulação de políticas de vacinação por meio de recomendações baseadas em evidências. Entretanto, é necessário melhorar a estrutura, o funcionamento e a transparência dos NITAGs para ajudá-los a se manter em dia com o campo da imunização, que está evoluindo rapidamente. A pesquisa sobre o impacto dos NITAGs é importante para apoiar a elaboração de recomendações de melhoria.

Investigating under-reported human papillomavirus genotypes in Grenadian women through self-sampling for cervical cancer screening / Investigación de los genotipos de virus del papiloma humano infranotificados en mujeres de Granada mediante automuestreo para el tamizaje del cáncer cervicouterino / Investigação de genótipos subnotificados de papilomavírus humano em mulheres de Granada por meio de autoamostragem para rastreamento de câncer do colo do útero

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To compare the adequacy, agreement, and acceptability of Papanicolaou testing (cytology) for cervical cancer screening using self-collected samples compared to physician-collected samples in Grenada in the Caribbean. Furthermore, the study identifies the human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes present among asymptomatic women testing positive for HPV, the etiologic cause of cervical cancer. Methods. Participants were divided into two groups and two cervical samples were collected from the women in each group: a self-collected sample and a physician-collected sample. Cervical specimens were tested for cytology and HPV. HPV genotyping was performed on positive specimens. Results. Self-collected samples were adequate and in agreement with physician-collected samples, showing no difference between the two sampling methods. Oncogenic high-risk HPV genotypes were identified in cervical samples which were positive for atypical squamous cells and low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions. The high-risk HPV genotypes found, notably HPV 45 and 53, differed from those most commonly reported. Although the commonly reported high-risk genotypes HPV 16 and 18 were found, so were 31, 33, 35, 52, 66, 68, and 82. Conclusions. Using self-collection facilitated the discovery of unexpected HPV genotypes among asymptomatic women in Grenada. These findings add new information to the literature regarding cervical cancer and neoplasia screening and HPV genotypes in the Caribbean. This genotype information may impact surveillance of women with low-grade lesions, HPV vaccine selection, and possibly further vaccine research. Research regarding HPV in Caribbean pathology samples of cervical neoplasia and cancer is needed.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Comparar la idoneidad, concordancia y aceptabilidad de la prueba de Papanicolaou (citología) para el tamizaje del cáncer cervicouterino mediante la comparación de muestras obtenidas con automuestreo y muestras tomadas por personal médico en Granada, en el Caribe. Asimismo, en el estudio se identifican los genotipos del virus del papiloma humano (VPH) existentes en las mujeres asintomáticas con un resultado positivo en las pruebas del VPH, la causa etiológica del cáncer cervicouterino. Métodos. Las participantes se dividieron en dos grupos y se tomaron dos muestras cervicouterinas de las mujeres de cada grupo: una muestra tomada por la propia paciente y una muestra tomada por personal médico. Se realizó un examen citológico y una prueba de detección del VPH en las muestras. En las muestras positivas, se determinó el genotipo del VPH. Resultados. Las muestras tomadas por las propias pacientes fueron adecuadas y concordaron con las obtenidas por el personal médico, sin que se observaran diferencias entre ambos métodos de muestreo. Se identificaron genotipos de VPH de alto riesgo oncogénico en muestras cervicouterinas positivas para células escamosas atípicas y lesiones intraepiteliales escamosas de grado bajo. Los genotipos de VPH de alto riesgo encontrados, en especial VPH 45 y 53, diferían de los notificados con mayor frecuencia. Aunque se encontraron los genotipos de alto riesgo habituales 16 y 18 del VPH, también se encontraron los genotipos 31, 33, 35, 52, 66, 68 y 82. Conclusiones. El uso del automuestreo facilitó la detección de genotipos inesperados del VPH en mujeres asintomáticas de Granada. Estos resultados agregan nueva información a la bibliografía sobre el tamizaje de las neoplasias y el cáncer cervicouterino, así como sobre los genotipos del VPH, en el Caribe. Esta información sobre el genotipo puede repercutir en la vigilancia de las mujeres con lesiones de bajo grado, en la elección de la vacuna contra el VPH y, posiblemente, en las ulteriores investigaciones sobre vacunas. Es necesario investigar la presencia del VPH en muestras anatomopatológicas de neoplasias y cánceres cervicouterinos en el Caribe.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Comparar a adequação, o nível de concordância e a aceitabilidade do exame de Papanicolau (citologia) para o rastreamento do câncer do colo do útero usando amostras autocoletadas em comparação com amostras coletadas por médicos em Granada, no Caribe. Além disso, o estudo identifica os genótipos de papilomavírus humano (HPV) presentes entre as mulheres assintomáticas com resultado positivo para HPV, a causa etiológica do câncer do colo do útero. Métodos. As participantes foram divididas em dois grupos, e duas amostras cervicais foram coletadas das mulheres de cada grupo: uma amostra autocoletada e uma amostra coletada por um médico. As amostras cervicais foram submetidas a exames citológicos e de HPV. A genotipagem do HPV foi realizada nas amostras positivas. Resultados. As amostras autocoletadas eram adequadas e compatíveis com as amostras coletadas por médicos, não havendo diferença entre os dois métodos de amostragem. Foram identificados genótipos de HPV de alto risco oncogênico em amostras cervicais positivas para células escamosas atípicas e lesões intraepiteliais escamosas de baixo grau. Os genótipos de HPV de alto risco encontrados, principalmente HPV 45 e 53, não correspondiam aos genótipos registrados com mais frequência na literatura. Embora os genótipos de alto risco HPV 16 e 18, que são frequentemente registrados, tenham sido observados, também foram detectados os genótipos 31, 33, 35, 52, 66, 68 e 82. Conclusões. O uso da autocoleta facilitou a detecção de genótipos inesperados de HPV entre mulheres assintomáticas em Granada. Esses achados adicionaram novas informações à literatura sobre o rastreamento de neoplasias e câncer do colo do útero e sobre os genótipos de HPV no Caribe. Essas informações genotípicas podem afetar a vigilância de mulheres com lesões de baixo grau, a seleção da vacina contra o HPV e, possivelmente, futuras pesquisas sobre vacinas. É necessário pesquisar o HPV em amostras patológicas de neoplasias cervicais e câncer do colo do útero no Caribe.

A pesar del récord de casos de dengue, América Latina y el Caribe mantiene baja la tasa de letalidad

Con más de 9,3 millones de casos de dengue, América Latina y el Caribe reporta actualmente el doble de casos registrados en todo 2023, según la última actualización epidemiológica emitida esta semana por la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS). Sin embargo, la tasa de letalidad se conserva por debajo de la meta regional del 0,05%.

Coral-reef ecology: Expanding urchin disease threatens ecosystem balance.

Sea urchins are critically important herbivores on coral reefs. A new study shows that a disease that decimated sea urchins in the Caribbean in 2022 has spread to the Red Sea, further threatening coral ecosystems.

Factors associated with skilled birth attendance in 37 low-income and middle-income countries: a secondary analysis of nationally representative, individual-level data.

BACKGROUND: Progress on skilled birth attendance (SBA) has been very uneven across low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). There is scant empirical evidence on the role of fundamental development processes in explaining differences in SBA outcomes across world regions over time in these settings. We therefore aimed to estimate how these processes have contributed to observed changes in SBA across Latin America and the Caribbean, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: We pooled all available Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) rounds that contained detailed birth attendance information. The compiled data covers about 1·1 million births (1·1 million female individuals) from 103 DHS rounds in 37 countries. We estimated the determinants of SBA using multivariable regression techniques and Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions for different world regions and time periods (1990s, 2000s, and 2010s). FINDINGS: We show that progress in SBA is associated with improvements in terms of household-level wealth, mothers' education, urbanisation, contraceptive knowledge, and proxies of female empowerment. Furthermore, we show that changes in the underlying relationship between SBA and specific development indicators (wealth, education, and rural residence status) have further contributed to the observed rise in SBA across LMICs. Our findings further suggest that certain determinants of improvements in SBA are region-specific (eg, importance of rural residence status in sub-Saharan Africa), whereas some of the studied processes (eg, poverty, maternal education, and urbanisation) have become less predictive for the uptake of SBA over time. INTERPRETATION: Although substantial progress has been made in increasing SBA rates over the past three decades across LMICs, further efforts for continued progress are still needed to achieve international targets on SBA as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, the Every Newborn Action Plan, and the Ending Preventable Maternal Mortality initiative. According to our findings, these efforts can include general policies (eg, female empowerment) and region-specific policies (eg, poverty reduction programmes in Southeast Asia). FUNDING: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine. TRANSLATIONS: For the French and Indonesian translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Kallopterolides A-I, a New Subclass of seco-Diterpenes Isolated from the Southwestern Caribbean Sea Plume Antillogorgia kallos.

Kallopterolides A-I (1-9), a family of nine diterpenoids possessing either a cleaved pseudopterane or a severed cembrane skeleton, along with several known compounds were isolated from the Caribbean Sea plume Antillogorgia kallos. The structures and relative configurations of 1-9 were characterized by analysis of HR-MS, IR, UV, and NMR spectroscopic data in addition to computational methods and side-by-side comparisons with published NMR data of related congeners. An investigation was conducted as to the potential of the kallopterolides as plausible in vitro anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, and antituberculosis agents.

Invasive pneumococcal disease in Latin America and the Caribbean: Serotype distribution, disease burden, and impact of vaccination. A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPD) are associated with high morbidity, mortality, and health costs worldwide, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Surveillance about the distribution of serotypes causing IPD and the impact of pneumococcal vaccination is an important epidemiological tool to monitor disease activity trends, inform public health decision-making, and implement relevant prevention and control measures. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the serotype distribution for IPD and the related disease burden in LAC before, during, and after implementing the pneumococcal vaccine immunization program in LAC. METHODS: Systematic literature review following Cochrane methods of studies from LAC. We evaluated the impact of the pneumococcal vaccine on hospitalization and death during or after hospitalizations due to pneumococcal disease and serotype-specific disease over time. We also analyzed the incidence of serotyped IPD in pneumococcal conjugate vaccine PCV10 and PCV13. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (ID: CRD42023392097). RESULTS: 155 epidemiological studies were screened and provided epidemiological data on IPD. Meta-analysis of invasive diseases in children <5 years old found that 57%-65% of causative serotypes were included in PCV10 and 66%-84% in PCV13. After PCV introduction, vaccine serotypes declined in IPD, and the emergence of non-vaccine serotypes varied by country. CONCLUSIONS: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines significantly reduced IPD and shifted serotype distribution in Latin America and the Caribbean. PCV10/PCV13 covered 57-84% of serotypes in children under 5, with marked decline in PCV serotypes post-vaccination. Continuous surveillance remains crucial for monitoring evolving serotypes and informing public health action.

Accelerating agricultural innovation in Latin America and the Caribbean: The crucial role of public investment data in science.

In the face of rapid global changes, the agricultural sector in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) stands at a crossroads. The region, known for its rich biodiversity and considerable agricultural output, is increasingly challenged by climate change, political and economic pressures, and the need for efficient and effective innovations to sustain the transformation of agrifood systems toward more sustainable practices.

Hard ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in the Colombian Caribbean harbor the Jingmen tick virus: an emerging arbovirus of public health concern.

BACKGROUND: Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites involved in transmitting viruses of public health importance. The objective of this work was to identify the Jingmen tick virus in hard ticks from the Colombian Caribbean, an arbovirus of importance for public health. METHODS: Ticks were collected in rural areas of Córdoba and Cesar, Colombia. Taxonomic identification of ticks was carried out, and pools of 13 individuals were formed. RNA extraction was performed. Library preparation was performed with the MGIEasy kit, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) with MGI equipment. Bioinformatic analyses and taxonomic assignments were performed using the Galaxy platform, and phylogenetic analyses were done using IQ-TREE2. RESULTS: A total of 766 ticks were collected, of which 87.33% (669/766) were Rhipicephalus microplus, 5.4% (42/766) Dermacentor nitens, 4.2% (32/766) Rhipicephalus linnaei, and 3.0% (23/766) Amblyomma dissimile. Complete and partial segments 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Jingmen tick virus (JMTV) were detected in the metatranscriptome of the species R. microplus, D. nitens, and A. dissimile. The JMTVs detected are phylogenetically related to JMTVs detected in Aedes albopictus in France, JMTVs detected in R. microplus in Trinidad and Tobago, JMTVs in R. microplus and A. variegatum in the French Antilles, and JMTVs detected in R. microplus in Colombia. Interestingly, our sequences clustered closely with JMTV detected in humans from Kosovo. CONCLUSIONS: JMTV was detected in R. microplus, D. nitens, and A. dissimile. JMTV could pose a risk to humans. Therefore, it is vital to establish epidemiological surveillance measures to better understand the possible role of JMTV in tropical diseases.

An evaluation of fish and invertebrate mercury concentrations in the Caribbean Region.

Mercury is a ubiquitous pollutant of global concern but the threat of exposure is not homogenously distributed at local, regional, or global scales. The primary route of human exposure to mercury is through consumption of aquatic foods, which are culturally and economically important in the wider Caribbean Region, especially for Small Island Developing States (SIDS). We compiled more than 1600 samples of 108 unique species of fish and aquatic invertebrates collected between 2005 and 2023 from eleven countries or territories in the wider Caribbean Region. There was wide variability in total mercury concentrations with 55% of samples below the 0.23 µg/g wet weight (ww) guideline from the U.S. FDA/EPA (2022) for 2 or 3 weekly servings and 26% exceeding the 0.46 µg/g ww guideline consistent with adverse effects on human health from continual consumption, particularly for sensitive populations. Significant relationships were found between total mercury concentrations and taxonomic family, sampling country, fish length, and trophic level. The data analyzed here support the need for further sampling with concrete geospatial data to better understand patterns and mechanisms in mercury concentrations and allow for more informed decision making on the consumption of fish and invertebrates from the wider Caribbean Region as well as supporting efforts to evaluate the effectiveness of national, regional, and international mercury policies.

Spatial and life history variation in a trait-based species vulnerability and impact model.

Anthropogenic pressures threaten biodiversity, necessitating conservation actions founded on robust ecological models. However, prevailing models inadequately capture the spatiotemporal variation in environmental pressures faced by species with high mobility or complex life histories, as data are often aggregated across species' life histories or spatial distributions. We highlight the limitations of static models for dynamic species and incorporate life history variation and spatial distributions for species and stressors into a trait-based vulnerability and impact model. We use green sea turtles in the Greater Caribbean Region to demonstrate how vulnerability and anthropogenic impact for a dynamic species change across four life stages. By incorporating life stages into a trait-based vulnerability model, we observed life stage-specific vulnerabilities that were otherwise unnoticed when using an aggregated trait value set. Early life stages were more vulnerable to some stressors, such as inorganic pollution or marine heat waves, and less vulnerable to others, such as bycatch. Incorporating spatial distributions of stressors and life stages revealed impacts differ for each life stage across spatial areas, emphasizing the importance of stage-specific conservation measures. Our approach showcases the importance of incorporating dynamic processes into ecological models and will enable better and more targeted conservation actions for species with complex life histories and high mobility.

Teen pregnancy involvement among African, Caribbean and Black adolescent boys and girls: A scoping review.

OBJECTIVES: This study aims to investigate the incidence, associated factors and interventions to address teen pregnancy involvement (TPI) among African, Caribbean and Black (ACB) adolescents in North America. DESIGN: We conducted a scoping review of the literature, guided by the social-ecological model. DATA SOURCES: Studies were retrieved from databases such as Ovid Medline, Ovid Embase, CINAHL, CAB Direct and Google Scholar and imported into COVIDENCE for screening. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: The Joanna Briggs Institute scoping reviews protocol guided the establishment of eligibility criteria. Included studies focused on rates, associated factors and interventions related to TPI among ACB boys and girls aged 10-19 in North America. The publication time frame was restricted to 2010-2023, encompassing both peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed studies with diverse settings. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Data were extracted from 32 articles using a form developed by the principal author, focusing on variables aligned with the research question. RESULTS: The scoping review revealed a dearth of knowledge in Canadian and other North American literature on TPI in ACB adolescents. Despite an overall decline in teen pregnancy rates, disparities persist, with interventions such as postpartum prescription of long-acting birth control and teen mentorship programmes proving effective. CONCLUSION: The findings highlight the need for increased awareness, research and recognition of male involvement in adolescent pregnancies. Addressing gaps in housing, employment, healthcare, sexual health education and health systems policies for marginalised populations is crucial to mitigating TPI among ACB adolescents. IMPACT: The review underscores the urgent need for more knowledge from other North American countries, particularly those with growing ACB migrant populations.

Health financing and access to medicines in the Caribbean

For millions of people, including those in the Caribbean region, accessing affordable and high-quality medicines poses significant challenges. These include affordability issues, concerns over the quality and safety of medicines, and inadequate financing for health care, as well as the inappropriate use of essential medicines, weak or limited regulatory systems, and complex procurement and supply chain management processes. The Caribbean region also faces a unique set of challenges, including high levels of public debt and significant informal economies. These factors constrain the capacity of governments to invest in social programs and agendas, including the provision of universal health coverage. At present, public spending on health care in the region is only 3.9% of gross domestic product, well below the 6% target. Consequently, many people must rely on out-of-pocket payments for health care, including medicines. This financial burden creates barriers to accessing health care and can lead to the irrational use of prescription drugs and other medicines. This report offers an initial and concise evaluation of certain health financing aspects that are crucial for accessing medicines in the Caribbean. It also provides a preliminary set of recommendations to guide national and regional efforts to improve the region’s current organization, financing, and provision of medicines. These recommendations aim to tackle the significant challenges highlighted in the report, including those related to system financing, barriers to access, and the financial burden of out-of-pocket costs. Envisioned as an integral part of a broader series of initiatives, this study aims to promote equitable, affordable, and sustainable access to medicines and health technologies by strengthening regulatory frameworks and production capacities, as well as by promoting the rational use of medicines. The publication also aims to be a useful resource for policymakers, health professionals, and other stakeholders in the region and beyond, as they work toward ensuring that everyone in the Caribbean has access to the medicines they need to lead healthy and productive lives, and that the region can achieve sustainable and equitable health financing.

The low health literacy in Latin America and the Caribbean: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Health literacy (HL) impacts people's health and well-being. In Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), there are no general estimates of the prevalence of low HL. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of low HL among citizens of LAC and identify the tools used to measure it. METHODS: We included observational studies quantifying the prevalence of low HL in people living in LAC. We searched PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, ERIC, LILACS, PsycINFO, Redalyc, SciELO, Web of Science, PQDT, and the reference lists of the included studies in June 2023. Two reviewers independently conducted the selection, extraction, and risk of bias assessment using the JBI Critical Appraisal Tools. Meta-analysis of proportions using random effects models was used to summarize the prevalence of low HL estimated. This prevalence was measured in each study using different classification methods: word recognition items, reading and numeracy comprehension items, and self-reported comprehension items. RESULTS: Eighty four studies involving 23,914 participants from 15 countries were included. We identified 23 tools to assess HL, and most of the studies were carried out in health services. The pooled prevalence of low HL were 44.02% (95%CI: 36.12-52.24) for reading and numeracy comprehension items, 50.62% (95%CI: 41.82-59.39) for word recognition items, and 41.73% (95%CI: 31.76-52.43) for self-reported comprehension items. CONCLUSION: Despite the variability in the prevalence of low HL and a diversity of tools, the average of low HL is of concern. Almost half of the participants in the included studies have low HL. Most of the studies targeted users of healthcare services. Further research investigating the prevalence of low HL in the general population and actions focused on health education, communication, and information are necessary. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PROSPERO (CRD42021250286).

Measuring multi-year changes in the Symbiodiniaceae algae in Caribbean corals on coral-depleted reefs.

Monitoring coral cover can describe the ecology of reef degradation, but rarely can it reveal the proximal mechanisms of change, or achieve its full potential in informing conservation actions. Describing temporal variation in Symbiodiniaceae within corals can help address these limitations, but this is rarely a research priority. Here, we augmented an ecological time series of the coral reefs of St. John, US Virgin Islands, by describing the genetic complement of symbiotic algae in common corals. Seventy-five corals from nine species were marked and sampled in 2017. Of these colonies, 41% were sampled in 2018, and 72% in 2019; 28% could not be found and were assumed to have died. Symbiodiniaceae ITS2 sequencing identified 525 distinct sequences (comprising 42 ITS2 type profiles), and symbiont diversity differed among host species and individuals, but was in most cases preserved within hosts over 3 yrs that were marked by physical disturbances from major hurricanes (2017) and the regional onset of stony coral tissue loss disease (2019). While changes in symbiont communities were slight and stochastic over time within colonies, variation in the dominant symbionts among colonies was observed for all host species. Together, these results indicate that declining host abundances could lead to the loss of rare algal lineages that are found in a low proportion of few coral colonies left on many reefs, especially if coral declines are symbiont-specific. These findings highlight the importance of identifying Symbiodiniaceae as part of a time series of coral communities to support holistic conservation planning. Repeated sampling of tagged corals is unlikely to be viable for this purpose, because many Caribbean corals are dying before they can be sampled multiple times. Instead, random sampling of large numbers of corals may be more effective in capturing the diversity and temporal dynamics of Symbiodiniaceae metacommunities in reef corals.

An Exploration of the Supportive Care Needs of Caribbean Families of Critically Ill Adults.

ABSTRACT: Nurses care for patients of diverse cultures. Persons in and from the Caribbean region have specific needs and concerns related to the support they need when a family member is admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU). Nurses familiar with Caribbean patient culture can provide these family members with knowledgeable and culturally competent care. However, little research exists about the unique needs of this population. This pilot study explored the nursing support needs of adult Caribbean family members of patients in the ICU.

Regional Update, Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses. Epidemiological Week 24 (21 June 2024)

[WEEKLY SUMMARY]. During the last four epidemiological weeks (EWs), low levels of Influenza-Like Illness (ILI) activity have been reported across the Americas. However, there has been epidemic activity in the Southern Cone and an increase in activity in the Caribbean and Central America subregions. This activity is associated with the circulation of influenza in the Southern Cone and Central America and SARS-CoV-2 in the Caribbean. Additionally, moderate levels of Severe Acute Respiratory Infection (SARI) have been observed, particularly in the Southern Cone, followed by the Andean subregion. In both cases the activity is related to positive cases of influenza and RSV. Regarding the circulation of respiratory viruses, SARS-CoV-2 activity has remained at low levels compared to previous epidemic waves, although showing an increase associated with circulation in North America and the Caribbean. Additionally, there has been rising epidemic-level influenza activity, marked by circulation in Central America, the Southern Cone, and some Caribbean countries. RSV activity has remained low except in the Andean region, where moderate levels have been observed. North America: ILI cases and hospitalizations associated with respiratory viruses have continued to decline over the past four EWs, remaining at low levels. Influenza activity has also continued to decrease, staying below the epidemic threshold. During this period, the predominant influenza viruses have been type A(H3N2), followed by type A(H1N1)pdm09 and type B/Victoria. RSV activity has shown a decline, remaining at low levels. SARS-CoV-2 activity has remained low compared to previous waves, although it has been on the rise. By country: In Canada, SARS-CoV-2 activity has continued to increase, although it remains at low levels. Influenza activity has dropped below the epidemic threshold, and RSV activity has remained low. In Mexico, influenza circulation has fallen below the epidemic threshold, and SARS-CoV-2 activity has shown a slight increase, remaining at low levels. In the United States, both ILI cases and hospitalization rates for influenza, RSV, and SARS-CoV-2 remain low. While influenza and RSV activity is low, the SARS-CoV-2 positivity rate has shown an increase. Caribbean: ILI cases have increased, associated with a higher proportion of positive cases of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza. On the other hand, although SARI cases have remained at low levels, there has been an increase in the proportion of positive cases of SARS-CoV-2. Influenza activity has remained at intermediate levels during the last four EWs. During this period, the predominant viruses have been type A(H3N2), with concurrent circulation of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. RSV activity has remained low. SARS-CoV-2 activity has shown a marked increase in the last two weeks, reaching elevated levels compared to previous waves. By country: Influenza activity has been observed over the last four EWs in the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Guyana, and the Cayman Islands. SARS-CoV-2 activity has been noted in Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Suriname, Barbados, Guyana, the Cayman Islands, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Central America: Both ILI and SARI activity have increased over the last four EWs, with most positive cases attributable to influenza. Influenza activity has risen during this period, reaching epidemic levels in several countries in the subregion. In the last four EWs, the predominant influenza viruses have been type A(H3N2), with concurrent circulation of A(H1N1)pdm09. RSV and SARS-CoV-2 activity have remained at low levels. By country: In El Salvador, influenza circulation has risen to high activity levels, and SARS-CoV-2 has shown an increase, although it remains low compared to previous waves. In Guatemala, during the last four EWs, ILI and SARI activity have fluctuated around the epidemic threshold. Most positive cases are attributed to influenza, which is at epidemic levels and declining, and RSV, whose activity is increasing. In Honduras, during the last four EWs, SARI activity has been fluctuating and remains at epidemic levels. This is mainly associated with positive influenza cases, currently at moderate levels, and to a lesser extent, SARS-CoV-2, which is increasing. In Nicaragua, a moderate increase above the epidemic threshold for influenza activity has been observed, while RSV and SARS-CoV-2 circulation remains low. In Panama, ILI and SARI cases have shown an increase over the last four EWs, coinciding with influenza activity rising to extraordinary levels. Andean: ILI and SARI activity have remained stable at low levels over the past four EWs, although an increase in the proportion of positive RSV and influenza cases has been observed. Influenza activity has remained low over the last four EWs with a fluctuating trend. During this period, the predominant influenza viruses have been type A(H3N2), with concurrent circulation of A(H1N1)pdm09. RSV activity has remained at moderate levels, with a growing trend. SARS-CoV-2 activity has remained low, showing a slight increase. By country: In Bolivia, SARI cases are in decline, with levels below the epidemic threshold. Almost all positive cases are attributable to influenza, whose activity has decreased to below the epidemic threshold after having reached moderate levels. In Colombia, SARI activity has remained at epidemic levels during the last four weeks, with most positive cases attributable to RSV (whose activity is at intermediate levels compared to previous seasons) and, to a lesser extent, influenza (whose activity is below the epidemic threshold). Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) cases have reached extraordinary levels. In Ecuador, SARI activity remains at epidemic levels and shows an increase, while pneumonia levels have risen to moderate levels. Positive SARI cases are primarily attributable to influenza, whose increasing activity has surpassed the epidemic threshold. To a lesser extent, they are attributable to RSV, which is declining, and SARS-CoV-2, which is increasing. In Peru, influenza activity remains below the epidemic threshold, while RSV and SARS-CoV-2 activity also remain low. In Venezuela, during the last four EWs, fluctuating influenza activity around the epidemic threshold has been observed. Brazil and the Southern Cone: After the increase observed in previous weeks, SARI activity has declined over the last four EWs, with most positive cases attributable to influenza and RSV. ILI activity continues to rise, with most positive cases attributed to influenza. Influenza activity has increased over the last four EWs, reaching epidemic levels in most countries. During this period, the predominant influenza viruses have been type A(H3N2), with lesser circulation of A(H1N1)pdm09. RSV activity has remained low but has shown a slight increase. SARS-CoV-2 activity has continued to decline, staying at low levels. By country: In Argentina, ILI activity, after reaching moderate levels, has shown a slight decrease, while SARI activity continues to rise, around the epidemic threshold. Influenza activity has shown an increase, reaching extraordinary levels. There has also been an increase in the RSV positivity rate. In Brazil, after moderate SARI activity in previous weeks, it has now declined below the epidemic threshold. The highest proportion of positive cases is attributable to RSV, followed by influenza. Meanwhile, ILI cases, which had previously reached high levels, have begun to decline, with influenza responsible for the majority of positive results. In Chile, both ILI and SARI cases have reached extraordinary and epidemic levels respectively and are currently in decline; most positive cases are attributable to influenza, which, after reaching extraordinary levels, has decreased to epidemic levels. In Paraguay, SARI activity is at moderate levels, while ILI activity is around the epidemic threshold. Most positive cases are attributable to influenza, circulating at moderate levels, and to a lesser extent, RSV, which is circulating at levels below those observed in previous seasons. In Uruguay, SARI activity, after reaching high levels, has decreased to intermediate levels, with most positive cases attributable to influenza. After reaching moderate levels, influenza has decreased to epidemic levels. To a lesser extent, cases are also attributable to RSV, which is currently circulating at levels below those observed in previous seasons.

[RESUMEN SEMANAL]. Situación regional: Durante las últimas cuatro semanas epidemiológicas (SE), se han registrado niveles bajos de actividad de la Enfermedad Tipo Influenza (ETI) en la región de las Américas. Sin embargo, ha habido actividad epidémica en el Cono Sur, y un aumento en la actividad en las subregiones del Caribe y Centroamérica. Esta actividad está asociada con la circulación de influenza en el Cono Sur y Centroamérica, y de SARS-CoV-2 en el Caribe. Además, se ha observado una actividad moderada de Infección Respiratoria Aguda Grave (IRAG), particularmente en el Cono Sur, seguida por la subregión Andina. En ambos casos, esta actividad está relacionada con casos positivos de influenza y VRS. En cuanto a la circulación de virus respiratorios, a nivel regional la actividad de SARS-CoV-2 ha se ha mantenido en niveles bajos en comparación con olas epidémicas previas, aunque mostrando un incremento asociado a la circulación en Norte América y Caribe. Asimismo, se ha observado una actividad epidémica de influenza en ascenso, marcada por la circulación en Centro América, el Cono Sur y algunos países del Caribe. La actividad del Virus Respiratorio Sincitial (VRS) se ha mantenido en niveles bajos excepto en la región Andina donde se han observado niveles moderados. América del Norte: Los casos de ETI y las hospitalizaciones asociadas a virus respiratorios, se han mantenido en descenso durante las cuatro últimas SE, presentando niveles bajos. La actividad de influenza se ha mantenido en descenso situándose por debajo del umbral epidémico. Durante este periodo, los virus de influenza predominantes han sido del tipo A (H3N2) seguido de influenza tipo A(H1N1)pdm09 y tipo B/Victoria. La actividad del VRS ha mostrado un descenso, manteniéndose en niveles bajos. La actividad del SARS-CoV-2 se ha mantenido en ascenso, aunque manteniéndose en niveles bajos en comparación con olas previas. Por países: En Canadá, la actividad del SARS-CoV-2 se ha mantenido en ascenso, aunque manteniendo niveles bajos. La actividad de influenza ha descendido por debajo del umbral epidémico y la actividad del VRS ha permanecido en niveles bajos. En México, la circulación de influenza ha descendido por debajo del umbral epidémico y la actividad del SARS-CoV-2 ha mostrado un ligero incremento, manteniéndose en niveles bajos. En Estados Unidos, tanto los casos de ETI como las tasas de hospitalización por influenza, VRS y SARS-CoV-2 se mantienen en niveles bajos. Tanto la actividad de influenza, VRS como se encuentran en niveles bajos, mientras el porcentaje de positividad del SARS-CoV-2 ha mostrado un incremento. Caribe: Los casos de ETI han incrementado, asociados a una mayor proporción de casos positivos de SARS-CoV-2 e influenza. Por otro lado, aunque los casos de IRAG han permanecido en niveles bajos, se ha observado un aumento en la proporción de casos positivos de SARS-CoV-2. La actividad de influenza se ha mantenido con niveles intermedios durante las últimas cuatro SE. Durante este periodo, los virus predominantes han sido de tipo A(H3N2), con circulación concurrente de influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. La actividad del VRS se ha mantenido en niveles bajos. La actividad del SARS-CoV-2 ha presentado un marcado incremento en las dos últimas semanas situándose en niveles elevados en comparación con olas previas. Por países: Se ha observado actividad de influenza las últimas cuatro SE en República Dominicana, Jamaica, Guyana y las Islas Caimán. Se ha observado actividad de SARS-CoV-2 en Jamaica, Santa Lucía, Surinam, Barbados, Guyana, las Islas Caimán y San Vicente y Granadinas. América Central: Durante las cuatro últimas SE la actividad tanto de ETI como de IRAG ha presentado un incremento, con la mayoría de los casos positivos atribuibles a influenza. La actividad de influenza ha presentado un ascenso durante este periodo situándose en niveles epidémicos en varios países de la subregión. En las cuatro últimas SE, los virus influenza predominantes han sido de tipo A(H3N2) con circulación concurrente de influenza A(H1N1)pdm09. La actividad del VRS y del SARS-CoV-2 ha permanecido en niveles bajos. Por países: En El Salvador, la circulación de influenza ha ascendido hasta niveles de actividad elevada y el SARS.CoV-2 ha mostrado un ascenso, aunque se mantiene en niveles bajos en comparación con ola previas. En Guatemala, durante las últimas cuatro SE, la actividad de ETI e IRAG ha oscilado alrededor del umbral epidémico. La mayoría de los casos positivos se atribuyen a influenza, cuya circulación está en niveles epidémicos y en descenso, y a VRS, cuya actividad está en ascenso. En Honduras, en las últimas cuatro SE, la actividad de IRAG ha sido fluctuante y se mantiene en niveles epidémicos. Esto se asocia principalmente a casos positivos de influenza, actualmente en niveles moderados, y en menor medida a SARS-CoV-2, que está en ascenso. En Nicaragua, se ha observado un incremento sobre el umbral moderado de la actividad de influenza, la circulación del VRS y SARSCoV- 2 se encuentra en niveles bajos. En Panamá, los casos de ETI e IRAG han mostrado un incremento en las últimas cuatro semanas epidemiológicas, coincidiendo con una actividad de influenza que ha ascendido a niveles extraordinarios. Andina: La actividad de ETI e IRAG se ha mantenido estable en niveles bajos durante las cuatro últimas SE, sin embrago se ha observado un ascenso en la proporción de casos positivos a VRS e influenza. La actividad de influenza ha permanecido en niveles bajos en las cuatro últimas SE con una tendencia fluctuante. Durante este periodo, los virus de influenza predominantes han sido de tipo A(H3N2) con circulación concurrente de A(H1N1)pdm09. La actividad del VRS se ha mantenido en niveles moderados, con una tendencia creciente. La actividad de SARS-CoV-2 se ha mantenido en niveles bajos mostrando un ligero ascenso. Por países: En Bolivia, los casos de IRAG se encuentran en descenso, con niveles por debajo del umbral epidémico. Prácticamente la totalidad de los positivos son atribuibles a influenza, cuya actividad ha disminuido hasta niveles por debajo del umbral epidémico tras haber alcanzado niveles moderados. En Colombia, la actividad de IRAG se ha mantenido en niveles epidémicos durante las últimas cuatro semanas, con la mayoría de los casos positivos atribuibles a VRS (cuya actividad se encuentra en niveles intermedios en comparación con temporadas previas) y, en menor medida, a influenza (cuya actividad se encuentra por debajo del umbral epidémico). Los casos de IRA (Infección Respiratoria Aguda) han alcanzado niveles extraordinarios. En Ecuador, la actividad de IRAG se mantiene en niveles epidémicos y muestra un incremento, mientras que los niveles de neumonía han ascendido a niveles moderados. Los casos positivos de IRAG son principalmente atribuibles a influenza, cuya actividad está en ascenso y ha superado el umbral epidémico. En menor medida, se atribuyen a VRS, que está en descenso, y a SARS-CoV-2, que se encuentra en ascenso. En Perú, la actividad de influenza se mantiene por debajo del umbral epidémico, mientras que la actividad de VRS y SARS-CoV-2 también se mantiene baja. En Venezuela, durante las últimas cuatro semanas epidemiológicas, se ha observado una actividad fluctuante de influenza en torno al umbral epidémico. Brasil y el Cono Sur: Tras el incremento observado en semanas previas la actividad de IRAG ha presentado un descenso en las cuatro últimas SE, con la mayoría de los casos positivos atribuibles a influenza y VRS. La actividad de ETI se mantiene en ascenso con la mayoría de los casos positivos a influenza. La actividad de influenza ha presentado un incremento en las últimas cuatro SE con niveles epidémicos en la mayoría de los países. En este periodo, los virus de influenza predominantes han sido de tipo A(H3N2) y en menor medida A(H1N1)pdm09. La actividad del VRS, aunque en ascenso, se ha mantenido en niveles bajos en comparación con temporadas previas. La actividad del SARS-CoV-2 se ha mantenido en niveles bajos de actividad. Por países: En Argentina, la actividad de ETI tras alcanzar niveles moderados ha presentado un ligero descenso, la actividad de IRAG continúa en ascenso en niveles en torno al umbral epidémico. La actividad de influenza ha mostrado un aumento, alcanzando niveles extraordinarios. Paralelamente, se ha observado un incremento en el porcentaje de positividad de VRS. En Brasil, tras observarse una actividad moderada de IRAG en semanas anteriores, esta ha descendido a niveles por debajo del umbral epidémico. La mayor proporción de casos positivos se atribuye a VRS, seguido de influenza. Por otro lado, los casos de ETI, que previamente alcanzaron niveles elevados, han comenzado a descender, siendo en este caso la influenza la responsable de la mayor proporción de resultados positivos. En Chile, los casos de ETI e IRAG han presentado niveles extraordinarios y epidémicos respectivamente y se encuentran actualmente en descenso; la mayoría de los casos positivos son atribuibles a influenza que tras alcanzar niveles extraordinarios ha presentado un descenso hasta niveles epidémicos. En Paraguay, la actividad de IRAG se encuentra en niveles moderados y la actividad de ETI en torno al umbral epidémico. La mayoría de los casos positivos son atribuibles a influenza que se encuentra circulando en niveles moderados y en menor medida a VRS que circula en niveles por debajo de los observados en temporadas previas. En Uruguay, la actividad de IRAG, tras alcanzar niveles elevados, ha descendido a niveles intermedios, con la mayoría de los casos positivos atribuibles a influenza. Esta última, después de alcanzar niveles moderados, ha descendido a niveles epidémicos. En menor medida, los casos se atribuyen a su vez a VRS, que actualmente circula en niveles por debajo de los observados entemporadas previas.