A Mechanistic Understanding of the Modes of Ca2+ Ion Binding to the SARS-CoV-1 Fusion Peptide and Their Role in the Dynamics of Host Membrane Penetration.

ABSTRACT

The SARS-CoV-1 spike glycoprotein contains a fusion peptide (FP) segment that mediates the fusion of the viral and host cell membranes. Calcium ions are thought to position the FP optimally for membrane insertion by interacting with negatively charged residues in this segment (E801, D802, D812, E821, D825, and D830); however, which residues bind to calcium and in what combinations supportive of membrane insertion are unknown. Using biological assays and molecular dynamics studies, we have determined the functional configurations of FP-Ca2+ binding that likely promote membrane insertion. We first individually mutated the negatively charged residues in the SARS CoV-1 FP to assay their roles in cell entry and syncytia formation, finding that charge loss in the D802A or D830A mutants greatly reduced syncytia formation and pseudoparticle transduction of VeroE6 cells. Interestingly, one mutation (D812A) led to a modest increase in cell transduction, further indicating that FP function likely depends on calcium binding at specific residues and in specific combinations. To interpret these results mechanistically and identify specific modes of FP-Ca2+ binding that modulate membrane insertion, we performed molecular dynamics simulations of the SARS-CoV-1 FP and Ca2+ions. The preferred residue pairs for Ca2+ binding we identified (E801/D802, E801/D830, and D812/E821) include the two residues found to be essential for S function in our biological studies (D802 and D830). The three preferred Ca2+ binding pairs were also predicted to promote FP membrane insertion. We also identified a Ca2+ binding pair (E821/D825) predicted to inhibit FP membrane insertion. We then carried out simulations in the presence of membranes and found that binding of Ca2+ to SARS-CoV-1 FP residue pairs E801/D802 and D812/E821 facilitates membrane insertion by enabling the peptide to adopt conformations that shield the negative charges of the FP to reduce repulsion by the membrane phospholipid headgroups. This calcium binding mode also optimally positions the hydrophobic LLF region of the FP for membrane penetration. Conversely, Ca2+ binding to the FP E801/D802 and D821/D825 pairs eliminates the negative charge screening and instead creates a repulsive negative charge that hinders membrane penetration of the LLF motif. These computational results, taken together with our biological studies, provide an improved and nuanced mechanistic understanding of the dymanics of SARS-CoV-1 calcium binding and their potential effects on host cell entry.