Body-size-dependent effects of landscape-level resource energetics on pollinator abundance in woodland remnants.

Land use change alters floral resource availability, thereby contributing to declines in important pollinators. However, the severity of land use impact varies by species, influenced by factors such as dispersal ability and resource specialization, both of which can correlate with body size. Here. we test whether floral resource availability in the surrounding landscape (the 'matrix') influences bee species' abundance in isolated remnant woodlands, and whether this effect varies with body size. We sampled quantitative flower-visitation networks within woodland remnants and quantified floral energy resources (nectar and pollen calories) available to each bee species both within the woodland and the matrix. Bee abundance in woodland increased with floral energy resources in the surrounding matrix, with strongest effects on larger-bodied species. Our findings suggest important but size-dependent effects of declining matrix floral resources on the persistence of bees in remnant woodlands, highlighting the need to incorporate landscape-level floral resources in conservation planning for pollinators in threatened natural habitats.

Ability to produce indole acetic acid is associated with improved phosphate solubilising activity of rhizobacteria.

Indole acetic acid (IAA) can upregulate genes encoding enzymes responsible for the synthesis of carboxylates involved in phosphorus (P) solubilisation. Here, we investigated whether IAA and its precursor affect the P-solubilising activity of rhizobacteria. A total of 841 rhizobacteria were obtained using taxonomically selective and enrichment isolation methods. Phylogenetic analysis revealed 15 genera of phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) capable of producing a wide range of IAA concentrations between 4.1 and 67.2 µg mL-1 in vitro. Addition of L-tryptophan to growth media improved the P-solubilising activity of PSB that were able to produce IAA greater than 20 µg mL-1. This effect was connected to the drop of pH and release of a high concentration of carboxylates, comprising α-ketoglutarate, cis-aconitate, citrate, malate and succinate. An increase in production of organic acids rather than IAA production per se appears to result in the improved P solubilisation in PSB.

Edaphic niche characterization of four Proteaceae reveals unique calcicole physiology linked to hyper-endemism of Grevillea thelemanniana.

Endemism and rarity have long intrigued scientists. We focused on a rare endemic and critically-endangered species in a global biodiversity hotspot, Grevillea thelemanniana (Proteaceae). We carried out plant and soil analyses of four Proteaceae, including G. thelemanniana, and combined these with glasshouse studies. The analyses related to hydrology and plant water relations as well as soil nutrient concentrations and plant nutrition, with an emphasis on sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca). The local hydrology and matching plant traits related to water relations partially accounted for the distribution of the four Proteaceae. What determined the rarity of G. thelemanniana, however, was its accumulation of Ca. Despite much higher total Ca concentrations in the leaves of the rare G. thelemanniana than in the common Proteaceae, very few Ca crystals were detected in epidermal or mesophyll cells. Instead of crystals, G. thelemanniana epidermal cell vacuoles contained exceptionally high concentrations of noncrystalline Ca. Calcium ameliorated the negative effects of Na on the very salt-sensitive G. thelemanniana. Most importantly, G. thelemanniana required high concentrations of Ca to balance a massively accumulated feeding-deterrent carboxylate, trans-aconitate. This is the first example of a calcicole species accumulating and using Ca to balance accumulation of an antimetabolite.

Floral micromorphology of the bird-pollinated carnivorous plant species Utricularia menziesii R.Br. (Lentibulariaceae).

Background and Aims: Bird pollination is rare among species in the genus Utricularia, and has evolved independently in two lineages of this genus. In Western Australia, the Western Spinebill, Acanthorhynchus superciliosus, visits flowers of Utricularia menziesii (section Pleiochasia: subgenus Polypompholyx). This study aimed to examine the micromorphology of U. menziesii flowers to assess traits that might be linked to its pollination strategy. Methods: Light microscopy, histochemistry and scanning electron microscopy were used. Nectar sugar composition was analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography. Key Results: The flowers of U. menziesii fulfil many criteria that characterize bird-pollinated flowers: red colour, a large, tough nectary spur that can withstand contact with a hard beak, lack of visual nectar guides and fragrance. Trichomes at the palate and throat may act as tactile signals. Spur nectary trichomes did not form clearly visible patches, but were more frequently distributed along vascular bundles, and were small and sessile. Each trichome comprised a single basal cell, a unicellular short pedestal cell (barrier cell) and a multicelled head. These trichomes were much smaller than those of the U. vulgaris allies. Hexose-dominated nectar was detected in flower spurs. Fructose and glucose were present in equal quantities (43 ± 3.6 and 42 ± 3.6 g L-1). Sucrose was only detected in one sample, essentially at the limit of detection for the method used. This type of nectar is common in flowers pollinated by passerine perching birds. Conclusions: The architecture of nectary trichomes in U. menziesii was similar to that of capitate trichomes of insect-pollinated species in this genus; thus, the most important specializations to bird pollination were flower colour (red), and both spur shape and size modification. Bird pollination is probably a recent innovation in the genus Utricularia, subgenus Polypompholyx, and is likely to have evolved from bee-pollinated ancestors.

Phosphorus concentration coordinates a respiratory bypass, synthesis and exudation of citrate, and the expression of high-affinity phosphorus transporters in Solanum lycopersicum.

Plants exhibit respiratory bypasses (e.g., the alternative oxidase [AOX]) and increase the synthesis of carboxylates in their organs (leaves and roots) in response to phosphorus (P) deficiency, which increases P uptake capacity. They also show differential expression of high-affinity inorganic phosphorus (Pi) transporters, thus avoiding P toxicity at a high P availability. The association between AOX and carboxylate synthesis was tested in Solanum lycopersicum plants grown at different soil P availability, by using plants grown under P-sufficient and P-limiting conditions and by applying a short-term (24 hr) P-sufficient pulse to plants grown under P limitation. Tests were also performed with plants colonized with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which increased plant P concentration under reduced P availability. The in vivo activities of AOX and cytochrome oxidase were measured together with the concentration of carboxylates and the P concentration in plant organs. Gene transcription of Pi transporters (LePT1 and LePT2) was also studied. A coordinated response between plant P concentration with these traits was observed, indicating that a sufficient P availability in soil led to a suppression of both AOX activity and synthesis of citrate and a downregulation of the transcription of genes encoding high-affinity Pi transporters, presumably to avoid P toxicity.

2,4-D resistance in wild radish: reduced herbicide translocation via inhibition of cellular transport.

Resistance to auxinic herbicides is increasing in a range of dicotyledonous weed species, but in most cases the biochemical mechanism of resistance is unknown. Using (14)C-labelled herbicide, the mechanism of resistance to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in two wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) populations was identified as an inability to translocate 2,4-D out of the treated leaf. Although 2,4-D was metabolized in wild radish, and in a different manner to the well-characterized crop species wheat and bean, there was no difference in metabolism between the susceptible and resistant populations. Reduced translocation of 2,4-D in the latter was also not due to sequestration of the herbicide, or to reduced uptake by the leaf epidermis or mesophyll cells. Application of auxin efflux or ABCB transporter inhibitors to 2,4-D-susceptible plants caused a mimicking of the reduced-translocation resistance phenotype, suggesting that 2,4-D resistance in the populations under investigation could be due to an alteration in the activity of a plasma membrane ABCB-type auxin transporter responsible for facilitating long-distance transport of 2,4-D.

Cercosporin From Pseudocercosporella capsellae and its Critical Role in White Leaf Spot Development.

Pseudocercosporella capsellae, the causative agent of white leaf spot disease in Brassicaceae, can produce a purple-pink pigment on artificial media resembling, but not previously confirmed as, the toxin cercosporin. Chemical extraction with ethyl acetate from growing hyphae followed by quantitative (thin-layer chromatography [TLC] and high-performance liquid chromatography [HPLC]) and qualitative methods showed an identical absorption spectrum, with similar retardation factor (Rf) values on TLC papers and an identical peak with the same retention time in HPLC as for a standard for cercosporin. We believe this is the first report to confirm that the purple-pink pigment produced by P. capsellae is cercosporin. Confocal microscopy detected green autofluorescence of cercosporin-producing hyphae, confirming the presence of cercosporin inside hyphae. The highly virulent UWA Wlra-7 isolate of P. capsellae produced the greatest quantity of cercosporin (10.69 mg g-1). The phytotoxicity and role of cercosporin in disease initiation across each of three Brassicaceae host species (Brassica juncea, B. napus, and Raphanus raphanistrum) was also studied. Culture filtrates containing cercosporin were phytotoxic to all three host plant species, producing large, white lesions on highly sensitive B. juncea, only water-soaked areas on least sensitive R. raphanistrum, and intermediate lesions on B. napus. It is noteworthy that sensitivity to cercosporin of these three host species was analogous to their susceptibility to the pathogen, viz., B. juncea the most susceptible, R. raphanistrum the least susceptible, and B. napus intermediate. The presence of cercosporin in the inoculum significantly increased disease severity on the highly cercosporin-sensitive B. juncea. We believe that this is the first study to demonstrate that P. capsellae produces cercosporin in liquid culture rather than agar media. Finally, this study highlights an important role of cercosporin as a pathogenicity factor in white leaf spot disease on Brassicaceae as evidenced by the ability of the cercosporin-rich culture filtrate to reproduce white leaf spot lesions on host plants and by the enhanced virulence of P. capsellae in the presence of cercosporin.

Camalexin Production in Camelina sativa is Independent of Cotyledon Resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz. has been proposed as a novel source of oilseed resistance to Sclerotinia rot (SR; causal agent Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary). To assess factors likely important in determining the level of resistance to this pathogen, 30 diverse C. sativa genotypes were evaluated using a cotyledon test under controlled environmental conditions. Confirmed cotyledon SR-resistant (CS370) and SR-susceptible (CS2305) genotypes were assessed for camalexin production across time following inoculation at the 1-month vegetative stage of growth. There were significant differences among C. sativa genotypes in response to inoculation with S. sclerotiorum in terms of percent cotyledon disease index (%CDI), with the mean %CDI ranging from 30.9 to 69.4% across germplasm and confirmation screening, respectively. Genotype CS370 consistently showed low %CDI indicating high level of resistance to S. sclerotiorum, whereas CS2305 showed the highest %CDI value. These findings highlight the potential to develop highly SR-resistant cultivars of C. sativa by selection. Furthermore, liquid chromatographic analysis of leaves for both SR-resistant and SR-susceptible genotypes demonstrated that camalexin was produced when inoculated with S. sclerotiorum. However, camalexin production was not linked with disease severity in either genotype, indicating that SR resistance in C. sativa is independent of the level of camalexin production.

Low levels of ribosomal RNA partly account for the very high photosynthetic phosphorus-use efficiency of Proteaceae species.

Proteaceae species in south-western Australia occur on phosphorus- (P) impoverished soils. Their leaves contain very low P levels, but have relatively high rates of photosynthesis. We measured ribosomal RNA (rRNA) abundance, soluble protein, activities of several enzymes and glucose 6-phosphate (Glc6P) levels in expanding and mature leaves of six Proteaceae species in their natural habitat. The results were compared with those for Arabidopsis thaliana. Compared with A. thaliana, immature leaves of Proteaceae species contained very low levels of rRNA, especially plastidic rRNA. Proteaceae species showed slow development of the photosynthetic apparatus ('delayed greening'), with young leaves having very low levels of chlorophyll and Calvin-Benson cycle enzymes. In mature leaves, soluble protein and Calvin-Benson cycle enzyme activities were low, but Glc6P levels were similar to those in A. thaliana. We propose that low ribosome abundance contributes to the high P efficiency of these Proteaceae species in three ways: (1) less P is invested in ribosomes; (2) the rate of growth and, hence, demand for P is low; and (3) the especially low plastidic ribosome abundance in young leaves delays formation of the photosynthetic machinery, spreading investment of P in rRNA. Although Calvin-Benson cycle enzyme activities are low, Glc6P levels are maintained, allowing their effective use.

Pyroxasulfone Metabolism in Resistant Lolium rigidum: Is It All Down to GST Activity?

Resistance to the herbicide pyroxasulfone has slowly but steadily increased in agricultural weeds. The evolved resistance of one Lolium rigidum population has been attributed to the conjugation of pyroxasulfone to reduced glutathione, mediated by glutathione transferase (GST) activity. To determine if GST-based metabolism is a widespread mechanism of pyroxasulfone resistance in L. rigidum, a number of putative-resistant populations were screened for GST activity toward pyroxasulfone, the presence of GSTF13-like isoforms (previously implicated in pyroxasulfone conjugation in this species), tissue glutathione concentrations, and response to inhibitors of GSTs and oxygenases. Although there were no direct correlations between pyroxasulfone resistance levels and these individual parameters, a random forest analysis indicated that GST activity was of primary importance for L. rigidum resistance to this herbicide.

Proteaceae from severely phosphorus-impoverished soils extensively replace phospholipids with galactolipids and sulfolipids during leaf development to achieve a high photosynthetic phosphorus-use-efficiency.

Proteaceae species in south-western Australia occur on severely phosphorus (P)-impoverished soils. They have very low leaf P concentrations, but relatively fast rates of photosynthesis, thus exhibiting extremely high photosynthetic phosphorus-use-efficiency (PPUE). Although the mechanisms underpinning their high PPUE remain unknown, one possibility is that these species may be able to replace phospholipids with nonphospholipids during leaf development, without compromising photosynthesis. For six Proteaceae species, we measured soil and leaf P concentrations and rates of photosynthesis of both young expanding and mature leaves. We also assessed the investment in galactolipids, sulfolipids and phospholipids in young and mature leaves, and compared these results with those on Arabidopsis thaliana, grown under both P-sufficient and P-deficient conditions. In all Proteaceae species, phospholipid levels strongly decreased during leaf development, whereas those of galactolipids and sulfolipids strongly increased. Photosynthetic rates increased from young to mature leaves. This shows that these species extensively replace phospholipids with nonphospholipids during leaf development, without compromising photosynthesis. A considerably less pronounced shift was observed in A. thaliana. Our results clearly show that a low investment in phospholipids, relative to nonphospholipids, offers a partial explanation for a high photosynthetic rate per unit leaf P in Proteaceae adapted to P-impoverished soils.

pH regulation in anoxic rice coleoptiles at pH 3.5: biochemical pHstats and net H+ influx in the absence and presence of NOFormula.

During anoxia, cytoplasmic pH regulation is crucial. Mechanisms of pH regulation were studied in the coleoptile of rice exposed to anoxia and pH 3.5, resulting in H(+) influx. Germinating rice seedlings survived a combination of anoxia and exposure to pH 3.5 for at least 4 d, although development was retarded and net K(+) efflux was continuous. Further experiments used excised coleoptile tips (7-10 mm) in anoxia at pH 6.5 or 3.5, either without or with 0.2 mM NO(3)(-), which distinguished two processes involved in pH regulation. Net H(+) influx (µmol g(-1) fresh weight h(-1)) for coleoptiles with NO(3)(-) was ∼1.55 over the first 24 h, being about twice that in the absence of NO(3)(-), but then decreased to 0.5-0.9 as net NO(3)(-) uptake declined from ∼1.3 to 0.5, indicating reduced uptake via H(+)-NO(3)(-) symports. NO(3)(-) reduction presumably functioned as a biochemical pHstat. A second biochemical pHstat consisted of malate and succinate, and their concentrations decreased substantially with time after exposure to pH 3.5. In anoxic coleoptiles, K(+) balancing the organic anions was effluxed to the medium as organic anions declined, and this efflux rate was independent of NO(3)(-) supply. Thus, biochemical pHstats and reduced net H(+) influx across the plasma membrane are important features contributing to pH regulation in anoxia-tolerant rice coleoptiles at pH 3.5.

Enhanced production of water-soluble cinmethylin metabolites by Lolium rigidum populations with reduced cinmethylin sensitivity.

BACKGROUND: Cinmethylin, a pre-emergence herbicide inhibiting fatty acid thioesterase activity, has recently been introduced to Australian cereal cropping for the control of Lolium rigidum Gaud. (annual ryegrass). To date, there have been no confirmed cases of cinmethylin resistance identified in this species, but some populations exhibit reduced sensitivity to this herbicide. To explore the mechanism which contributes to reduced sensitivity of annual ryegrass to cinmethylin, the extent and nature of cinmethylin metabolism, using carbon-14 (14 C)-labelled herbicide, were analysed in three reduced-sensitivity annual ryegrass populations, alongside a susceptible population and cinmethylin-tolerant wheat as controls. RESULTS: All samples showed the same metabolite profile, with the extent of production of a specific water-soluble metabolite being correlated to the level of herbicide sensitivity. Application of the cytochrome P450 inhibitor phorate caused a decrease in water-soluble metabolite production as well as seedling growth in the presence of cinmethylin, indicating that reduced cinmethylin sensitivity in annual ryegrass could be wholly or partially due to oxidative modification of cinmethylin. CONCLUSION: Because annual ryegrass has the potential to metabolize cinmethylin in the same way as wheat, careful stewardship is required to ensure the longevity of this herbicide. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Rapid On-Farm Testing of Resistance in Lolium rigidum to Key Pre- and Post-Emergence Herbicides.

Overreliance on herbicides for weed control is conducive to the evolution of herbicide resistance. Lolium rigidum (annual ryegrass) is a species that is prone to evolve resistance to a wide range of herbicide modes of action. Rapid detection of herbicide-resistant weed populations in the field can aid farmers to optimize the use of effective herbicides for their control. The feasibility and utility of a rapid 7-d agar-based assay to reliably detect L. rigidum resistant to key pre- and post-emergence herbicides including clethodim, glyphosate, pyroxasulfone and trifluralin were investigated in three phases: correlation with traditional pot-based dose-response assays, effect of seed dormancy, and stability of herbicides in agar. Easy-to-interpret results were obtained using non-dormant seeds from susceptible and resistant populations, and resistance was detected similarly as pot-based assays. However, the test is not suitable for trifluralin because of instability in agar as measured over a 10-d period, as well as freshly-harvested seeds due to primary dormancy. This study demonstrates the utility of a portable and rapid assay that allows for on-farm testing of clethodim, glyphosate, and pyroxasulfone resistance in L. rigidum, thereby aiding the identification and implementation of effective herbicide control options.

Pyroxasulfone-Resistant Annual Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) Has Enhanced Capacity for Glutathione Transferase-Mediated Pyroxasulfone Conjugation.

The herbicide pyroxasulfone was widely introduced in 2012, and cases of evolved resistance in weeds such as annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaud.) and tall waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer] have started to emerge. Pyroxasulfone is detoxified by tolerant crops, and by annual ryegrass that has been recurrently selected with pyroxasulfone, in a pathway that is hypothesized to involve glutathione conjugation. In the current study, it was confirmed that pyroxasulfone is conjugated to glutathione in vitro by glutathione transferases (GSTs) purified from susceptible and resistant annual ryegrass populations and from a tolerant crop species, wheat. The extent of conjugation corresponded to the pyroxasulfone resistance level. Pyroxasulfone-conjugating activity was higher in radicles, roots, and seeds compared to coleoptiles or expanded leaves. Among the GSTs purified from annual ryegrass radicles and seeds, an orthologue of Brachypodium distachyon GSTF13 was >20-fold more abundant in the pyroxasulfone-resistant population, suggesting that this protein could be responsible for pyroxasulfone conjugation.

AusTraits, a curated plant trait database for the Australian flora.

We introduce the AusTraits database - a compilation of values of plant traits for taxa in the Australian flora (hereafter AusTraits). AusTraits synthesises data on 448 traits across 28,640 taxa from field campaigns, published literature, taxonomic monographs, and individual taxon descriptions. Traits vary in scope from physiological measures of performance (e.g. photosynthetic gas exchange, water-use efficiency) to morphological attributes (e.g. leaf area, seed mass, plant height) which link to aspects of ecological variation. AusTraits contains curated and harmonised individual- and species-level measurements coupled to, where available, contextual information on site properties and experimental conditions. This article provides information on version 3.0.2 of AusTraits which contains data for 997,808 trait-by-taxon combinations. We envision AusTraits as an ongoing collaborative initiative for easily archiving and sharing trait data, which also provides a template for other national or regional initiatives globally to fill persistent gaps in trait knowledge.

Summer dormancy and winter growth: root survival strategy in a perennial monocotyledon.

Here, we tested the alternation of root summer dormancy and winter growth as a critical survival strategy for a long-lived monocotyledon (Restionaceae) adapted to harsh seasonal extremes of Mediterranean southwest Western Australia. Measurements of growth and the results of comparative studies of the physiology, water content, metabolites, osmotic adjustments, and proteomics of the dormant and growing perennial roots of Lyginia barbata (Restionaceae) were assessed in field-grown plants. Formation of dormant roots occurred before the onset of summer extremes. They resumed growth (average 2.3 mm d(-1)) the following winter to eventually reach depths of 2-4 m. Compared with winter-growing roots, summer dormant roots had decreased respiration and protein concentration and c. 70% water content, sustained by sand-sheaths, osmotic adjustment and presumably hydraulic redistribution. Concentrations of compatible solutes (e.g. sucrose and proline) were significantly greater during dormancy, presumably mitigating the effects of heat and drought. Fifteen root proteins showed differential abundance and were correlated with either winter growth or summer dormancy. None matched currently available libraries. The specific features of the root dormancy strategy of L. barbata revealed in this study are likely to be important to understanding similar behaviour in roots of many long-lived monocotyledons, including overwintering and oversummering crop species.

Floral micromorphology and nectar composition of the early evolutionary lineage Utricularia (subgenus Polypompholyx, Lentibulariaceae).

Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) is a genus comprising around 240 species of herbaceous, carnivorous plants. Utricularia is usually viewed as an insect-pollinated genus, with the exception of a few bird-pollinated species. The bladderworts Utricularia multifida and U. tenella are interesting species because they represent an early evolutionary Utricularia branch and have some unusual morphological characters in their traps and calyx. Thus, our aims were to (i) determine whether the nectar sugar concentrations and composition in U. multifida and U. tenella are similar to those of other Utricularia species from the subgenera Polypompholyx and Utricularia, (ii) compare the nectary structure of U. multifida and U. tenella with those of other Utricularia species, and (iii) determine whether U. multifida and U. tenella use some of their floral trichomes as an alternative food reward for pollinators. We used light microscopy, histochemistry, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy to address those aims. The concentration and composition of nectar sugars were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography. In all of the examined species, the floral nectary consisted of a spur bearing glandular trichomes. The spur produced and stored the nectar. We detected hexose-dominated (fructose + glucose) nectar in U. multifida and U. tenella as well as in U. violacea. In both U. multifida and U. tenella, there were trichomes that blocked the entrance into the throat and spur. Because these trichomes were rich in chromoplasts and contained lipid droplets, they may form an additional visual attractant. Bearing in mind the phylogenetic hypothesis for the genus, we suggest that an early ancestor of Utricularia had a nectariferous spur flower with a lower lip that formed a wide landing platform for bee pollinators.

Identity and Activity of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid Metabolites in Wild Radish ( Raphanus raphanistrum).

Synthetic auxin herbicides, such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), are widely used for selective control of broadleaf weeds in cereals and transgenic crops. Although the troublesome weed wild radish ( Raphanus raphanistrum) has developed resistance to 2,4-D, no populations have yet displayed an enhanced capacity for metabolic detoxification of the herbicide, with both susceptible and resistant wild radish plants readily metabolizing 2,4-D. Using mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance, the major 2,4-D metabolite was identified as the glucose ester, and its structure was confirmed by synthesis. As expected, both the endogenous and synthetic compounds retained auxin activity in a bioassay. The lack of detectable 2,4-D hydroxylation in wild radish and the lability of the glucose ester suggest that metabolic 2,4-D resistance is unlikely to develop in this species.

Widespread occurrence of both metabolic and target-site herbicide resistance mechanisms in Lolium rigidum populations.

BACKGROUND: Lolium rigidum populations in Australia and globally have demonstrated rapid and widespread evolution of resistance to acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase)-inhibiting and acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicides. Thirty-three resistant L. rigidum populations, randomly collected from crop fields in a most recent resistance survey, were analysed for non-target-site diclofop metabolism and all known target-site ACCase gene resistance-endowing mutations. RESULTS: The HPLC profile of [(14) C]-diclofop-methyl in vivo metabolism revealed that 79% of these resistant L. rigidum populations showed enhanced capacity for diclofop acid metabolism (metabolic resistance). ACCase gene sequencing identified that 91% of the populations contain plants with ACCase resistance mutation(s). Importantly, 70% of the populations exhibit both non-target-site metabolic resistance and target-site ACCase mutations. CONCLUSIONS: This work demonstrates that metabolic herbicide resistance is commonly occurring in L. rigidum, and coevolution of both metabolic resistance and target-site resistance is an evolutionary reality. Metabolic herbicide resistance can potentially endow resistance to many herbicides and poses a threat to herbicide sustainability and thus crop production, calling for major research and management efforts.