Porto-sinusoidal vascular disorder and nephrotic-range proteinuria due to venous vasculitis in Behçet's disease.

Behçet's disease (BD) is an autoinflammatory disease with multifactorial and polygenic etiology, potentially involving arteries and veins of any size resulting in variable vessel vasculitis. We report a case of an Iranian male who presented with porto-sinusoidal vascular disorder due to venous vasculitis as initial manifestation of BD. Despite immunosuppression, anticoagulation and venous recanalization, he subsequently developed severe nephrotic-range proteinuria mimicking a primary renal disease which was completely and immediately ameliorated by stenting of the vena cava. This demonstrates that the proteinuria was caused by increased intraglomerular pressure due to venous outflow obstruction as a consequence of venous vasculitis. To our knowledge, this is the first report of massive proteinuria caused by venous obstruction of the caval vein in the context of BD. Altogether, this case demonstrates the extensive spectrum of vascular disease in BD.

Dysregulated Fcγ receptor IIa-induced cytokine production in dendritic cells of lupus nephritis patients.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease of unknown etiology. One of the key factors associated with SLE pathogenesis is excessive production of type I interferons (IFNs). This could result from increased activation of type I IFN-stimulating pathways, but also from decreased activation of type I IFN-inhibitory pathways. Recently, we have identified that immunoglobulin (Ig)G immune complexes strongly inhibit type I IFN production in healthy individuals by inhibitory signaling through Fcγ receptor IIa (FcγRIIa) on dendritic cells (DCs). Because, in SLE patients, immune complexes are characteristically present, we assessed whether FcγR-induced suppression of type I IFN is functional in DCs of SLE patients. We divided the SLE patients into one group without, and one group with, previous major organ involvement, for which we chose nephritis as a prototypical example. We show that DCs of lupus nephritis patients displayed impaired FcγR-mediated type I IFN inhibition compared to SLE patients without major organ involvement or healthy controls. We verified that this impaired type I IFN inhibition was not related to differences in disease activity, medication, FcγRIIa expression or expression of IFN regulatory transcription factors (IRF)1 and IRF5. In addition, we identified that DCs of lupus nephritis patients show increased FcγR-induced interleukin (IL)-1ß production, which is another important cytokine that promotes kidney inflammation. Taken together, these data indicate that DCs of lupus nephritis patients display altered FcγR-mediated regulation of cytokine production, resulting in elevated levels of type I IFN and IL-1ß. This dysregulation may contribute to the development of nephritis in SLE patients.

Not Everything Is as It Seems: A Case Series and Overview of Diseases Mimicking Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody-Associated Vasculitis.

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a rare heterogeneous disease in which treatment must be initiated early to prevent irreversible organ damage and death. There are several diseases that can mimic AAV, even in the presence of positive ANCA serology and/or histological evidence of vasculitis, as demonstrated in this case series. We reflect on the diagnostic approach of patients with AAV and provide an overview of AAV-mimicking diseases that can be considered in patients with atypical disease presentation or course.

[Chronic anemia and unexplained inflammation: think of VEXAS syndrome]. / Chronische anemie en onverklaarde ontsteking.

BACKGROUND: VEXAS-syndrome is an X-linked acquired multisystemic autoinflammatory disease caused by a somatic mutation in UBA1. CASE DESCRIPTION: In this manuscript we describe a 79-year-old male suffering from skin lesions, macrocytic anemia and lab results showing inflammation in which, based on finding a mutation in UBA1, VEXAS was diagnosed. He was treated with a combination of high dose corticosteroids and anti-IL-6 with good response. CONCLUSION: In middle aged males presenting with multisystemic inflammation without evidence of infection a diagnosis of VEXAS should be considered, especially if there is evidence of a macrocytic anemia. Early testing for UBA1 mutations helps in making the diagnosis. Despite treatment with intensive immunosuppression mortality remains high.

A Dutch consensus statement on the diagnosis and treatment of ANCA-associated vasculitis.

INTRODUCTION: Despite the availability of several guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis (AAV), clinical routine practice will only improve when an implementation strategy is in place to support clinical decision making and adequate implementation of guidelines. We describe here an initiative to establish national and multidisciplinary consensus on broad aspects of the diagnosis and treatment of AAV relevant to daily clinical practice in the Netherlands. METHODS: A multidisciplinary working group of physicians in the Netherlands with expertise on AAV addressed the broad spectrum of diagnosis, terminology, and immunosuppressive and non-immunosuppressive treatment, including an algorithm for AAV patients. Based on recommendations from (inter)national guidelines, national consensus was established using a Delphi-based method during a conference in conjunction with a nationally distributed online consensus survey. Cut-off for consensus was 70% (dis)agreement. RESULTS: Ninety-eight professionals were involved in the Delphi procedure to assess consensus on 50 statements regarding diagnosis, treatment, and organisation of care for AAV patients. Consensus was achieved for 37/50 statements (74%) in different domains of diagnosis and treatment of AAV including consensus on the treatment algorithm for AAV. CONCLUSION: We present a national, multidisciplinary consensus on a diagnostic strategy and treatment algorithm for AAV patients as part of the implementation of (inter)national guideline-derived recommendations in the Netherlands. Future studies will focus on evaluating local implementation of treatment protocols for AAV, and assessments of current and future clinical practice variation in the care for AAV patients in the Netherlands.

IgG4:IgG RNA ratio differentiates active disease from remission in granulomatosis with polyangiitis: a new disease activity marker? A cross-sectional and longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVES: An important limitation in granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) is the lack of disease activity markers. Immunoglobulin G4-positive (IgG4+) B cells and plasma cells are implicated in the pathogenesis of GPA. We hypothesized that the presence of these cells in peripheral blood could serve as disease activity parameter in GPA. METHODS: We included 35 proteinase 3-antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies-positive patients with GPA in a cross-sectional study. Active disease was defined as Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score (BVAS) ≥ 3 (n = 15), remission as BVAS of 0 (n = 17), and low disease activity (LDA) as BVAS of 1-2 and clinical remission (n = 3). Healthy subjects (n = 10), patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (n = 24), and patients with rheumatoid arthritis (n = 19) functioned as control subjects. An additional longitudinal study was performed in ten patients with GPA. Using a validated qPCR test, we measured the IgG4:IgG RNA ratio in all groups and compared the results with known biomarkers. RESULTS: The median qPCR score was higher in active GPA (21.4; IQR 12.1-29.6) than in remission/LDA (3.3; IQR 1.6-5.6) (Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.0001) and outperformed other known disease activity parameters in detecting activity. A cutoff qPCR score of 11.2% differentiated active disease from remission/LDA accurately (AUC 0.993). The qPCR test correlated well with the BVAS (Spearman r = 0.77, p < 0.0001). In the longitudinal study, a decrease in BVAS correlated with qPCR score reduction (paired t test, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The IgG4:IgG RNA ratio in GPA accurately distinguishes active disease from remission and correlates well with disease activity in these single-center studies. If these results are confirmed in larger longitudinal studies, this test might help to steer treatment decisions in patients with GPA.

Comparison between measures of atherosclerosis and risk of stroke: the Rotterdam Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Several measures of atherosclerosis predict the risk of stroke. However, a comparison between various measures of atherosclerosis is lacking, and limited information exists on the added value of individual measures of atherosclerosis to cardiovascular risk factors. We compared different measures of atherosclerosis in relation to stroke. METHODS: The study was based on the prospective cohort of the Rotterdam Study and included 6913 participants who did not suffer from previous stroke. At baseline, carotid intima-media thickness and plaques, ankle-arm index, and aortic calcifications were assessed; 3996 participants (53%) had measures of all studied markers of atherosclerosis. After a mean follow-up of 6.1 years, 378 strokes occurred. Data were analyzed with Cox proportional-hazards regression and Akaike information criteria scores. RESULTS: Carotid intima-media thickness and aortic calcifications were related most strongly to the risk of stroke (relative risk, 2.23 and 1.89; 95% confidence interval, 1.48 to 3.36 and 1.28 to 2.80 for highest versus lowest tertile, respectively). The relations between intima-media thickness, aortic calcifications, and carotid plaques and stroke remained after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors. Intima-media thickness and aortic calcifications were related to the risk of stroke independently of each other. The relation between ankle-arm index and stroke disappeared after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Carotid intima-media thickness and aortic calcifications are stronger predictors of incident stroke than carotid plaque or ankle-arm indexes. They have additional value to each other and to classic risk factors and may reflect different processes.

Markers of inflammation and cellular adhesion molecules in relation to insulin resistance in nondiabetic elderly: the Rotterdam study.

Insulin resistance, which is highly prevalent in the elderly, is suggested to be accompanied by an increased acute phase response. Until now, it is unclear whether cellular adhesion molecules are involved in the clustering of insulin resistance. In the present study, we examined the relationship of insulin resistance (measured by postload insulin) with levels of markers of inflammation and cellular adhesion molecules in a random sample of 574 nondiabetic elderly men and women participating in the Rotterdam Study. Associations were assessed by regression analysis, with ln-insulin as the dependent variable [regression coefficient (95% confidence interval)]. In our population, insulin was strongly and significantly (P < 0.001) associated with the markers of inflammation C-reactive protein [1.52 (0.96-2.08)], alpha-1-antichymotrypsin [1.25 (0.82-1.69)], and IL-6 [2.60 (1.69-3.52)], adjusted for age and gender. Associations weakened, to some extent, after additional adjustment for measures of obesity, smoking, and cardiovascular disease. Insulin was associated with the soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 [2.22 (1.29-3.16; P < 0.001)], whereas no association with the soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 was found. The strength of the associations of insulin with C-reactive protein, alpha-1-antichymotrypsin, IL-6, and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1, as assessed by standardized regression coefficients, was comparable with the strength of the associations of insulin with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, body mass index, and waist-to-hip ratio. The results of this population-based study indicate that low-grade inflammation and the cellular adhesion molecule soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 are an integral part of insulin resistance in nondiabetic elderly. These factors may contribute to the well-known relationship between insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease risk and might potentially become therapeutic targets in insulin resistant subjects.

The effect of hormone replacement therapy on serum homocysteine levels in perimenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial.

Serum homocysteine levels may be lowered by hormone replacement therapy, but randomized controlled trial data are scarce. We performed a single center randomized placebo-controlled trial to assess the 6 months effect of hormone replacement therapy compared with placebo on fasting serum homocysteine levels in 121 perimenopausal women free of cardiovascular disease, and recruited from the general population. The trial was double-blind with respect to a sequential combined regimen of oral 17 beta-estradiol and desogestrel (17 beta E(2)-D) and the placebo group and open with respect to a combination of conjugated equine estrogens and norgestrel (CEE-N). At baseline and after 6 months, fasting serum homocysteine levels were measured. Differences in 6 months serum homocysteine levels from baseline between treatment and placebo groups were calculated, and expressed as a percentage of the 6 months placebo level. After 6 months, the difference in serum homocysteine levels between women receiving 17 beta E(2)-D and placebo was -6.3% (95% CI, -12.4%; 0.0%, P=0.06). The difference between women receiving CEE-N and placebo was -10.1% (95% CI, -16.7%; -2.9%, P<0.01). The difference between the combined group of both types of hormone replacement therapy users and placebo was -7.8% (95% CI, -13.2%; -2.0%, P=0.01). No significant difference was observed between the two active regimens. Our results indicate that hormone replacement therapy decreases homocysteine levels in perimenopausal women.

Increased plasma homocysteine after menopause.

Besides genetic defects in the enzymes involved in homocysteine metabolism and nutritional deficiencies in vitamin cofactors, sex steroid hormones may modulate plasma homocysteine levels. The post-menopausal state has been found to be associated with higher plasma homocysteine levels, but data are inconsistent and studies published so far did not adjust for age, which is an important confounding factor in studying the effect of menopause. In the present study total plasma homocysteine levels were measured in a meticulously selected population in which the contrast in estrogen status between pre- and postmenopausal women of the same age was maximized. The study comprised 93 premenopausal and 93 postmenopausal women of similar age (range 43-55 years). Women were selected from respondents to a mailed questionnaire on menopause, which was sent to all women aged 40-60 years in the Dutch town of Zoetermeer (n = 12675). Postmenopausal women who were at least three years after menopause or whose menses had stopped naturally before age 48 were age-matched with premenopausal women with regular menses and without menopausal complaints. Plasma homocysteine levels in the fasting state were related to menopausal status; the age-adjusted geometric mean was 10.7 micromol/l in premenopausal and 11.5 micromol/l in postmenopausal women (difference of 7%, 95% confidence interval 0.3-14%, P = 0.04). Additional adjustment for plasma creatinine, body mass index, smoking habit (yes, no) and alcohol intake did not influence this difference. The results of this population-based study indicate that plasma homocysteine is affected by menopause.

Dermatomyositis and polymyositis: new treatment targets on the horizon.

Polymyositis (PM) and dermatomyositis (DM) are rare idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) with a presumed autoimmune pathogenesis. Typical features are subacute onset, proximal, symmetric muscle weakness, elevated serum creatine kinase, and mononuclear cell infiltrates in the muscle biopsy. Strong support for an autoimmune pathogenesis comes from histopathological findings in biopsies of affected muscles. Furthermore, the association with autoantibodies supports the notion that immune-mediated inflammation is involved. PM and DM may occur in isolation or in connection with a connective tissue disease or cancer. The current treatment for IIM consists of first-line high-dose steroids and various conventional second-line treatments. Improvements in treatment for IIM are hampered by difficulties in the design of trials and the low incidence and prevalence of the disease. Cytokines and chemokines are factors involved in the inflammatory process in IIM, and are candidates for future therapeutic targets. Preliminary data with anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy are not very promising, but results of blockers of the lymphotoxin signalling pathway are to be awaited. Anti-B cell therapy may be a valuable therapeutic option for treatment of refractory IIM. The effects of anti-interferon-alpha in IIM are to be awaited, as are results of other anti-cytokine therapies and anti-chemokine therapy. Outcome measures to be used in clinical trials in II M include at present the core sets of outcome proposed by the International Myositis Assessment Clinical Study Group (IMACS).

Subclinical hypothyroidism is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in elderly women: the Rotterdam Study.

BACKGROUND: Overt hypothyroidism has been found to be associated with cardiovascular disease. Whether subclinical hypothyroidism and thyroid autoimmunity are also risk factors for cardiovascular disease is controversial. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether subclinical hypothyroidism and thyroid autoimmunity are associated with aortic atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. DESIGN: Population-based cross-sectional study. SETTING: A district of Rotterdam, The Netherlands. PARTICIPANTS: Random sample of 1149 women (mean age +/- SD, 69.0 +/- 7.5 years) participating in the Rotterdam Study. MEASUREMENTS: Data on thyroid status, aortic atherosclerosis, and history of myocardial infarction were obtained at baseline. Subclinical hypothyroidism was defined as an elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone level (>4.0 mU/L) and a normal serum free thyroxine level (11 to 25 pmol/L [0.9 to 1.9 ng/dL]). In tests for antibodies to thyroid peroxidase, a serum level greater than 10 IU/mL was considered a positive result. RESULTS: Subclinical hypothyroidism was present in 10.8% of participants and was associated with a greater age-adjusted prevalence of aortic atherosclerosis (odds ratio, 1.7 [95% CI, 1.1 to 2.6]) and myocardial infarction (odds ratio, 2.3 [CI, 1.3 to 4.0]). Additional adjustment for body mass index, total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level, blood pressure, and smoking status, as well as exclusion of women who took beta-blockers, did not affect these estimates. Associations were slightly stronger in women who had subclinical hypothyroidism and antibodies to thyroid peroxidase (odds ratio for aortic atherosclerosis, 1.9 [CI, 1.1 to 3.6]; odds ratio for myocardial infarction, 3.1 [CI, 1.5 to 6.3]). No association was found between thyroid autoimmunity itself and cardiovascular disease. The population attributable risk percentage for subclinical hypothyroidism associated with myocardial infarction was within the range of that for known major risk factors for cardiovascular disease. CONCLUSION: Subclinical hypothyroidism is a strong indicator of risk for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in elderly women.

Progression of aortic calcification is associated with metacarpal bone loss during menopause: a population-based longitudinal study.

offerosclerosis and osteoporosis are major causes of morbidity and mortality in postmenopausal women and have been suggested to be associated. No study has examined whether progression of atherosclerotic calcification is associated with bone loss. In the present study, we examined progression of aortic calcification, diagnosed by radiographic detection of calcified deposits in the abdominal aorta, in relation to metacarpal bone loss, as assessed by metacarpal radiogrammetry, during menopause. Initially premenopausal women (n=236), aged 45 to 57 years at baseline, were followed for 9 years. We additionally assessed the cross-sectional association between the extent of aortic calcification and metacarpal bone mass and density in 720 postmenopausal women. Twenty-five percent of women going through menopause showed progression of aortic calcification. The average loss of metacarpal bone mass among women with progression of aortic calcification was 3.2 mm(2), and their loss of metacarpal bone density was 7.2 mm(2) %, whereas in women without progression of aortic calcification, these losses were 2.0 mm(2) and 5.6 mm(2) %, respectively, adjusted for age and years of follow-up (P<0.05). Additional adjustment for age at menopause, body mass index, blood pressure, smoking, diabetes mellitus, and use of hormone replacement therapy, thiazide, and loop diuretics did not influence these results. In postmenopausal women, a graded inverse cross-sectional association between the extent of aortic calcification and metacarpal bone mass and density was found. In conclusion, our results indicate that progression of atherosclerotic calcification is associated with increased bone loss in women during menopause.

Associations of C-reactive protein with measures of obesity, insulin resistance, and subclinical atherosclerosis in healthy, middle-aged women.

Obesity, the insulin resistance syndrome, and atherosclerosis are closely linked and may all be determinants of an increased acute-phase response. In this study, we examined the relationship of C-reactive protein (CRP) with measures of obesity, variables of the insulin resistance syndrome, and intima-media thickness of the common carotid arteries in 186 healthy, middle-aged women selected from the general population. Associations were assessed by regression analysis. CRP was strongly associated with body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference. CRP was also associated with other variables of the insulin resistance syndrome, including blood pressure, insulin, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein A1 (inversely), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 antigen, and tissue-type plasminogen activator antigen. Associations between CRP and the variables of the insulin resistance syndrome disappeared after controlling for BMI but remained significant for plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 antigen only. The association of CRP with common carotid artery intima-media thickness was weak and limited to ever-smokers. BMI explained 29.7% of the variance of CRP, whereas common carotid artery intima-media thickness explained only 3.7%. The results of this population-based study indicate that adiposity is strongly associated with CRP in healthy, middle-aged women. In this population, BMI accounted for the relationship between CRP and other variables of the insulin resistance syndrome. Further studies should determine whether losing weight ameliorates the inflammatory state.

Menopausal status and risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

OBJECTIVES: Changes in cardiovascular risk factors with menopausal status are difficult to study, owing to the high correlation of menopausal status with age. Therefore we examined cardiovascular risk factors in a meticulously selected population in which the contrast in oestrogen status between pre- and postmenopausal women of the same age was maximized. DESIGN: Risk factors were compared in 93 premenopausal and 93 postmenopausal women who were matched on age (range 43-55 years). SETTING: The women were selected from respondents to a mailed questionnaire about the menopause, which was sent to all women aged 40-60 years in the Dutch town of Zoetermeer (n = 12 675; response 54%). SUBJECTS: Postmenopausal women who were at least 3 years after menopause or whose menses had stopped naturally before age 48 were age-matched with premenopausal women with regular menses and without menopausal complaints. RESULTS: Compared to premenopausal women, postmenopausal women had significantly increased levels of total cholesterol (10.0%, 95% confidence interval 5.1-14.0), low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (14.0%, 6.9-19.9), and apolipoprotein B (8.2%, 0.6-15.5). The difference was present within 3 years after onset of menopause and did not show a trend towards an increase with the number of postmenopausal years. No differences were found in high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein A1, blood glucose, insulin, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study add to the evidence that total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B are the primary cardiovascular risk factors affected by menopause.

Bone mineral density and the risk of peripheral arterial disease: the Rotterdam Study.

Low estrogen exposure throughout life is thought to result in low bone mineral density (BMD) and an increased incidence of cardiovascular disease. In the Rotterdam Study we cross-sectionally examined the relation between BMD and peripheral arterial disease (PAD), as assessed by an ankle-arm index (AAI) of <0.9 in either leg. Data on BMD and PAD were available for 5268 individuals (3053 women, 2215 men). From the BMD, Z-scores were calculated and subsequently divided into tertiles. Logistic regression analysis was used to compute odds ratios (OR) for PAD in tertiles of BMD, using the upper tertile as a reference. When adjusting for age, women with a low femoral neck BMD had a significantly increased risk of PAD (OR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.16-1.91). This could not be found for men (1.14, 0.84-1.53). The mid-tertile did not differ from the reference in either men or women. In women, additional adjustment for several potential confounders resulted in a somewhat lowered risk estimate (1.35, 1.02-1.79). In contrast, no association between lumbar spine BMD and PAD could be observed in either men or women. Our study shows an association between low femoral neck BMD and PAD in women only, an association unlikely to be causal. Estrogen deficiency may be the common denominator in osteoporosis and PAD, resulting in clustering of these two major diseases in postmenopausal women.