Expression analysis of aquaporins from desert truffle mycorrhizal symbiosis reveals a fine-tuned regulation under drought.

We have performed the isolation, functional characterization, and expression analysis of aquaporins in roots and leaves of Helianthemum almeriense, in order to evaluate their roles in tolerance to water deficit. Five cDNAs, named HaPIP1;1, HaPIP1;2, HaPIP2;1, HaPIP2;2, and HaTIP1;1, were isolated from H. almeriense. A phylogenetic analysis of deduced proteins confirmed that they belong to the water channel proteins family. The HaPIP1;1, HaPIP2;1, and HaTIP1;1 genes encode functional water channel proteins, as indicated by expression assays in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, showing divergent roles in the transport of water, CO2, and NH3. The expression patterns of the genes isolated from H. almeriense and of a previously described gene from Terfezia claveryi (TcAQP1) were analyzed in mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal plants cultivated under well-watered or drought-stress conditions. Some of the studied aquaporins were subjected to fine-tuned expression only under drought-stress conditions. A beneficial effect on plant physiological parameters was observed in mycorrhizal plants with respect to nonmycorrhizal ones. Moreover, stress induced a change in the mycorrhizal type formed, which was more intracellular under drought stress. The combination of a high intracellular colonization, together with the fine-tuned expression of aquaporins could result in a morphophysiological adaptation of this symbiosis to drought conditions.

Responses to Drought Stress in Poplar: What Do We Know and What Can We Learn?

Poplar (Populus spp.) is a high-value crop for wood and biomass production and a model organism for tree physiology and genomics. The early release, in 2006, of the complete genome sequence of P. trichocarpa was followed by a wealth of studies that significantly enriched our knowledge of complex pathways inherent to woody plants, such as lignin biosynthesis and secondary cell wall deposition. Recently, in the attempt to cope with the challenges posed by ongoing climate change, fundamental studies and breeding programs with poplar have gradually shifted their focus to address the responses to abiotic stresses, particularly drought. Taking advantage from a set of modern genomic and phenotyping tools, these studies are now shedding light on important processes, including embolism formation (the entry and expansion of air bubbles in the xylem) and repair, the impact of drought stress on biomass yield and quality, and the long-term effects of drought events. In this review, we summarize the status of the research on the molecular bases of the responses to drought in poplar. We highlight how this knowledge can be exploited to select more tolerant genotypes and how it can be translated to other tree species to improve our understanding of forest dynamics under rapidly changing environmental conditions.

Increased water use efficiency in miR396-downregulated tomato plants.

MicroRNAs regulate plant development and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses but their impact on water use efficiency (WUE) is poorly known. Increasing WUE is a major task in crop improvement programs aimed to meet the challenges posed by the reduction in water availability associated with the ongoing climatic change. We have examined the physiological and molecular response to water stress of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) plants downregulated for miR396 by target mimicry. In water stress conditions, miR396-downregulated plants displayed reduced transpiration and a less then proportional decrease in the photosynthetic rate that resulted in higher WUE. The increase in WUE was associated with faster foliar accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA), with the induction of several drought-protective genes and with the activation of the jasmonic acid (JA) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathways. We propose a model in which the downregulation of miR396 leads to the activation of a complex molecular response to water stress. This response acts synergistically with a set of leaf morphological modifications to increase stomatal closure and preserve the efficiency of the photosynthetic activity, ultimately resulting in higher WUE.

Identification of New Markers of Alcohol-Derived DNA Damage in Humans.

Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for the development of several cancers, including those of the head and neck and the esophagus. The underlying mechanisms of alcohol-induced carcinogenesis remain unclear; however, at these sites, alcohol-derived acetaldehyde seems to play a major role. By reacting with DNA, acetaldehyde generates covalent modifications (adducts) that can lead to mutations. Previous studies have shown a dose dependence between levels of a major acetaldehyde-derived DNA adduct and alcohol exposure in oral-cell DNA. The goal of this study was to optimize a mass spectrometry (MS)-based DNA adductomic approach to screen for all acetaldehyde-derived DNA adducts to more comprehensively characterize the genotoxic effects of acetaldehyde in humans. A high-resolution/-accurate-mass data-dependent constant-neutral-loss-MS3 methodology was developed to profile acetaldehyde-DNA adducts in purified DNA. This resulted in the identification of 22 DNA adducts. In addition to the expected N2-ethyldeoxyguanosine (after NaBH3CN reduction), two previously unreported adducts showed prominent signals in the mass spectra. MSn fragmentation spectra and accurate mass were used to hypothesize the structure of the two new adducts, which were then identified as N6-ethyldeoxyadenosine and N4-ethyldeoxycytidine by comparison with synthesized standards. These adducts were quantified in DNA isolated from oral cells collected from volunteers exposed to alcohol, revealing a significant increase after the exposure. In addition, 17 of the adducts identified in vitro were detected in these samples confirming our ability to more comprehensively characterize the DNA damage deriving from alcohol exposures.

Cloning and characterization of small non-coding RNAs from grape.

Small non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), are effectors of regulatory pathways underlying plant development, metabolism, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. To address the nature and functions of these regulators in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), we have produced a small RNA library from mixed-stage grape berries. Thirteen conserved miRNAs belonging to nine miRNA families, a non-conserved miRNA, and four putative non-conserved miRNAs were isolated, and their expression and targets are described. Experimentally validated targets of non-conserved miRNAs and putative miRNAs included three genes encoding NB-LRR proteins and a gene encoding a heavy metal ion transport/detoxification protein. Of the endogenous and pathogen-derived siRNAs that were also isolated, four endogenous siRNAs mapped to genes encoding RD22-like proteins and two to a gene encoding a cytokinin synthase. The siRNA id65 targeted the cytokinin synthase gene transcript with antisense complementarity, and was specifically expressed in mature berries, in which, by contrast, expression of the cytokinin synthase gene was strongly repressed. 5' RACE revealed that the transcript of this gene was processed in 21 nucleotide increments from the id65 cleavage site, and that further cleavage was mediated by secondary siRNAs in cis. These results indicate that grapevine miRNA- and siRNA-mediated regulatory circuits have evolved to comprise processes associated with defence and fruit ripening, and broaden the range of small RNA-mediated regulation, which was previously associated with auxin, ABA, gibberellins and jasmonate, to encompass cytokinin metabolism.

Transgene silencing in grapevines transformed with GFLV resistance genes: analysis of variable expression of transgene, siRNAs production and cytosine methylation.

Eight transgenic grapevine lines transformed with the coat protein gene of Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV-CP) were analyzed for a correlation between transgene expression, siRNAs production and DNA methylation. Bisulphite genome sequencing was used for a comprehensive analysis of DNA methylation. Methylated cytosine residues of CpG and CpNpG sites were detected in the GFLV-CP transgene, in the T7 terminator and in the 35S promoter of three grapevines without transgene expression, but no detectable level of siRNAs was recorded in these lines. The detailed analysis of 8 lines revealed the complex arrangements of T-DNA and integrated binary vector sequences as crucial factors that influence transgene expression. After inoculation with GFLV, no change in the levels of cytosine methylation was observed, but transgenic and untransformed plants produced short siRNAs (21-22 nt) indicating that the grapevine plants responded to GFLV infection by activating a post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanism.

Nanoscale battery cathode materials induce DNA damage in bacteria.

The increasing use of nanoscale lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (Li x Ni y Mn z Co1-y-z O2, NMC) as a cathode material in lithium-ion batteries poses risk to the environment. Learning toxicity mechanisms on molecular levels is critical to promote proactive risk assessment of these complex nanomaterials and inform their sustainable development. We focused on DNA damage as a toxicity mechanism and profiled in depth chemical and biological changes linked to DNA damage in two environmentally relevant bacteria upon nano-NMC exposure. DNA damage occurred in both bacteria, characterized by double-strand breakage and increased levels of many putative chemical modifications on bacterial DNA bases related to direct oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, measured by cutting-edge DNA adductomic techniques. Chemical probes indicated elevated intracellular reactive oxygen species and transition metal ions, in agreement with DNA adductomics and gene expression analysis. By integrating multi-dimensional datasets from chemical and biological measurements, we present rich mechanistic insights on nano-NMC-induced DNA damage in bacteria, providing targets for biomarkers in the risk assessment of reactive materials that may be extrapolated to other nano-bio interactions.

Fragmentation Spectra Prediction and DNA Adducts Structural Determination.

In this work, chemical dynamics simulations were optimized and used to predict fragmentation mass spectra for DNA adduct structural determination. O6-methylguanine (O6-Me-G) was used as a simple model adduct to calculate theoretical spectra for comparison with measured high-resolution fragmentation data. An automatic protocol was established to consider the different tautomers accessible at a given energy and obtain final theoretical spectra by insertion of an initial tautomer. In the work reported here, the most stable tautomer was chosen as the initial structure, but in general, any structure could be considered. Allowing for the formation of the various possible tautomers during simulation calculations was found to be important to getting a more complete fragmentation spectrum. The calculated theoretical results reproduce the experimental peaks such that it was possible to determine reaction pathways and product structures. The calculated tautomerization network was crucial to correctly identifying all the observed ion peaks, showing that a mobile proton model holds not only for peptide fragmentation but also for nucleobases. Finally, first principles results were compared to simple machine learning fragmentation models.

Targeted High Resolution LC/MS3 Adductomics Method for the Characterization of Endogenous DNA Damage.

DNA can be damaged through covalent modifications of the nucleobases by endogenous processes. These modifications, commonly referred to as DNA adducts, can persist and may lead to mutations, and ultimately to the initiation of cancer. A screening methodology for the majority of known endogenous DNA adducts would be a powerful tool for investigating the etiology of cancer and for the identification of individuals at high-risk to the detrimental effects of DNA damage. This idea led to the development of a DNA adductomic approach using high resolution data-dependent scanning, an extensive MS2 fragmentation inclusion list of known endogenous adducts, and neutral loss MS3 triggering to profile all DNA modifications. In this method, the detection of endogenous DNA adducts is performed by observation of their corresponding MS3 neutral loss triggered events and their relative quantitation using the corresponding full scan extracted ion chromatograms. The method's inclusion list consists of the majority of known endogenous DNA adducts, compiled, and reported here, as well as adducts specific to tobacco exposure included to compare the performance of the method with previously developed targeted approaches. The sensitivity of the method was maximized by reduction of extraneous background signal through the purification and minimization of the amount of commercially obtained enzymes used for the DNA hydrolysis. In addition, post-hydrolysis sample purification was performed using off-line HPLC fraction collection to eliminate the highly abundant unmodified bases, and to avoid introduction of plasticizers found in solid-phase extraction cartridges. Also, several instrument parameters were evaluated to optimize the ion signal intensities and fragmentation spectra quality. The method was tested on an animal model of lung carcinogenesis where A/J mice were exposed to the tobacco specific lung carcinogen 4-methylnitrosamino-1-3-pyridyl-1-butanone (NNK) with its effects enhanced by co-exposure to the pro-inflammatory agent lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Lung DNA were screened for endogenous DNA adducts known to result from oxidative stress and LPS-induced lipid peroxidation, as well as for adducts due to NNK exposure. The relative quantitation of the detected DNA adducts was performed using parallel reaction monitoring MS2 analysis, demonstrating a general workflow for analysis of endogenous DNA adducts.

The human gut bacterial genotoxin colibactin alkylates DNA.

Certain Escherichia coli strains residing in the human gut produce colibactin, a small-molecule genotoxin implicated in colorectal cancer pathogenesis. However, colibactin's chemical structure and the molecular mechanism underlying its genotoxic effects have remained unknown for more than a decade. Here we combine an untargeted DNA adductomics approach with chemical synthesis to identify and characterize a covalent DNA modification from human cell lines treated with colibactin-producing E. coli Our data establish that colibactin alkylates DNA with an unusual electrophilic cyclopropane. We show that this metabolite is formed in mice colonized by colibactin-producing E. coli and is likely derived from an initially formed, unstable colibactin-DNA adduct. Our findings reveal a potential biomarker for colibactin exposure and provide mechanistic insights into how a gut microbe may contribute to colorectal carcinogenesis.

Identification of an Alternative rRNA Post-transcriptional Maturation of 26S rRNA in the Kingdom Fungi.

Despite of the integrity of their RNA, some desert truffles present a non-canonical profile of rRNA where 3.3 kb is absent, 1.8 kb is clear and a band of 1.6 kb is observed. A similar rRNA profile was identified in organisms belonging to different life kingdoms, with the exception of the Kingdom Fungi, as a result of a split LSU rRNA called hidden gap. rRNA profiles of desert truffles were analyzed to verify the presence of the non-canonical profile. The RNA of desert truffles and yeast were blotted and hybridized with probes complementary to LSU extremes. RACE of LSU rRNA was carried out to determine the LSU rRNA breakage point. LSU rRNA of desert truffles presents a post-transcriptional cleavage of five nucleotides that generates a hidden gap located in domain D7. LSU splits into two molecules of 1.6 and 1.8 kb. Similar to other organisms, a UAAU tract, downstream of the breakage point, was identified. Phylogenetic comparison suggests that during fungi evolution mutations were introduced in the hypervariable D7 domain, resulting in a sequence that is specifically post-transcriptionally cleaved in some desert truffles.

A High Resolution/Accurate Mass (HRAM) Data-Dependent MS3 Neutral Loss Screening, Classification, and Relative Quantitation Methodology for Carbonyl Compounds in Saliva.

Reactive carbonyl compounds (RCCs) are ubiquitous in the environment and are generated endogenously as a result of various physiological and pathological processes. These compounds can react with biological molecules inducing deleterious processes believed to be at the basis of their toxic effects. Several of these compounds are implicated in neurotoxic processes, aging disorders, and cancer. Therefore, a method characterizing exposures to these chemicals will provide insights into how they may influence overall health and contribute to disease pathogenesis. Here, we have developed a high resolution accurate mass (HRAM) screening strategy allowing simultaneous identification and relative quantitation of DNPH-derivatized carbonyls in human biological fluids. The screening strategy involves the diagnostic neutral loss of hydroxyl radical triggering MS3 fragmentation, which is only observed in positive ionization mode of DNPH-derivatized carbonyls. Unique fragmentation pathways were used to develop a classification scheme for characterizing known and unanticipated/unknown carbonyl compounds present in saliva. Furthermore, a relative quantitation strategy was implemented to assess variations in the levels of carbonyl compounds before and after exposure using deuterated d 3 -DNPH. This relative quantitation method was tested on human samples before and after exposure to specific amounts of alcohol. The nano-electrospray ionization (nano-ESI) in positive mode afforded excellent sensitivity with detection limits on-column in the high-attomole levels. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a method using HRAM neutral loss screening of carbonyl compounds. In addition, the method allows simultaneous characterization and relative quantitation of DNPH-derivatized compounds using nano-ESI in positive mode. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

QTLs for Woolly Poplar Aphid (Phloeomyzus passerinii L.) Resistance Detected in an Inter-Specific Populus deltoides x P. nigra Mapping Population.

The genus Populus represents one of the most economically important groups of forest trees. It is composed by approximately 30 species used for wood and non-wood products, phytoremediation and biomass. Poplar is subjected to several biological and environmental threats although, compared to annual crops, we know far less about the genetic bases of biotic stress resistance. Woolly poplar aphid (Phloeomyzus passerinii) is considered a main pest of cultivated poplars in European and American countries. In this work we present two high density linkage maps in poplar obtained by a genotyping by sequencing (GBS) approach and the identification of QTLs involved in Ph. passerinii resistance. A total of 5,667 polymorphic markers (5,606 SNPs and 61 SSRs) identified on expressed sequences have been used to genotype 131 plants of an F1 population P ×canadensis obtained by an interspecific mate between Populus deltoides (resistant to woolly poplar aphid) and Populus nigra (susceptible to woolly poplar aphid). The two linkage maps, obtained following the two-way pseudo-testcross mapping strategy, have been used to investigate the genetic bases of woolly poplar aphid resistance. One major QTL and two QTLs with minor effects (mapped on LGV, LGXVI and LG XIX) explaining the 65.8% of the genetic variance observed in the progeny in response to Ph. passerinii attack were found. The high density coverage of functional markers allowed the identification of three genes belonging to disease resistance pathway as putative candidates for P. deltoides resistance to woolly poplar aphid. This work is the first report on genetic of woolly poplar aphid genetic resistance and the resistant loci associated markers identified represent a valuable tool in resistance poplar breeding programs.

Fast and reliable artemisinin determination from different Artemisia annua leaves based alimentary products by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

In many tropical countries malaria is endemic, causing acute illness and killing people, especially children. The availability of recommended malaria medicines is scant, even though these medicines are based on artemisinin, a compound extracted from the Artemisia annua plant that grows in many of these countries. New sources of treatment drawn from traditional medicine are therefore used, such as the tea infusion. An analytical method based on high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was developed to quantify the artemisinin content of foods prepared with Artemisia annua leaves. A fast and reliable analytical method is described. The technique does not require any derivatisation prior to injection and offers excellent analytical intermediate precision. Robust qualitative and quantitative results were obtained using tea, biscuit or porridge specimens. Although further research is needed to define the potential therapeutic benefits of these alimentary formulations, the analytical method described can be employed in developing more convenient and appropriate foods for administering artemisinin to those infected with malaria.

Determination of tissue levels of a neuroprotectant drug: the cell permeable JNK inhibitor peptide.

INTRODUCTION: Cell permeable peptides (CPPs) represent a novel tool for the delivery of bioactive molecules into scarcely accessible organs, such as the brain. CPPs have been successfully used in pre-clinical studies for a variety of diseases, ranging from cancer to neurological disorders. However, the mechanisms by which CPPs cross biological membranes, as well as their pharmacokinetic properties, have been poorly explored due to the lack of specific and sensitive analytical methods. METHODS: In this paper we describe a protocol to quantitatively determine the amount of CPPs in in vitro and in vivo experimental models. To this end we selected the peptide D-JNKI1 that was shown to prevent neurodegeneration in both acute and chronic degenerative disorders. This method allows an accurate quantitative analysis of D-JNKI1 in both neuronal lysates and tissue homogenates using mass spectrometry and stable isotope dilution approach. RESULTS: We found that D-JNKI1 crosses cellular membranes with fast kinetics, through an active and passive mechanism. After acute intraperitoneal (ip) administration of D-JNKI1 in mice, the peptide was found in the main organs with particular regard to the liver and kidney. Interestingly, D-JNKI1 crosses the blood brain barrier (BBB) and reaches the brain, where it remains for one week. DISCUSSION: The challenge lies in developing the clinical application of therapeutic cell permeable peptides. Discerning pharmacokinetic properties is a high priority to produce a powerful therapeutic strategy. Overall, our data shed light on the pharmacokinetic properties of D-JNKI1 and supports its powerful neuroprotective effect.

Determination of paclitaxel distribution in solid tumors by nano-particle assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging.

A sensitive, simple and reproducible protocol for nanoparticle-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging technique is described. The use of commercially available TiO2 nanoparticles abolishes heterogeneous crystallization, matrix background interferences and enhances signal detection, especially in the low mass range. Molecular image normalization was based on internal standard deposition on tissues, allowing direct comparison of drug penetration and distribution between different organs and tissues. The method was applied to analyze the distribution of the anticancer drug paclitaxel, inside normal and neoplastic mouse tissue sections. Spatial resolution was good, with a linear response between different in vivo treatments and molecular imaging intensity using therapeutic drug doses. This technique distinguishes the different intensity of paclitaxel distribution in control organs of mice, such as liver and kidney, in relation to the dose. Animals treated with 30 mg/kg of paclitaxel had half of the concentration of those treated with 60 mg/kg. We investigated the spatial distribution of paclitaxel in human melanoma mouse xenografts, following different dosage schedules and found a more homogeneous drug distribution in tumors of mice given repeated doses (5×8 mg/kg) plus a 60 mg/kg dose than in those assigned only a single 60 mg/kg dose. The protocol can be readily applied to investigate anticancer drug distribution in neoplastic lesions and to develop strategies to optimize and enhance drug penetration through different tumor tissues.

Profiling of hydroxycinnamoyl tartrates and acylated anthocyanins in the skin of 34 Vitis vinifera genotypes.

The diversity of berry skin flavonoids in grape genotypes has been previously widely investigated with regard to major compounds (nonacylated anthocyanins and flavonols), but much less with regard to acylated anthocyanins and hydroxycinnamoyl tartrates (HCTs). In this study, the composition of the phenolic fraction of the berry skin (free and acylated anthocyanins, flavonols, and HCTs) was assessed on 34 grapevine genotypes grown in a collection vineyard in northwestern Italy. The phenolic fraction was profiled on berries collected in the same vineyard, at the same ripening level across two successive vintages. The anthocyanin, HCT, and flavonol profiles were specific of each genotype, and the first two were relatively little affected by the vintage. A wide diversity in the polyphenolic fraction was shown among cultivars. Besides expected discriminatory effects of free anthocyanins and flavonol profiles, principal component analyses allowed a good discrimination of cultivars on the basis of coumaroylated anthocyanins and of the HCT profile. Anthocyanins were mostly acylated by aromatic acids, and acylation was independent from the anthocyanin substrate. HCTs were present mostly as coumaroyl and caffeoyl derivatives, and no correlation was observed between the same acylation patterns of tartrate and of anthocyanins. The results of this study are discussed in the light of new hypotheses on still unknown biosynthetic steps of phenolic substances and of the potential use of these substances in discrimination and identification of different grape cultivars in wines.

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic Acid in fish fillet samples.

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic (PFOA) acid are persistent contaminants which can be found in environmental and biological samples. A new and fast analytical method is described here for the analysis of these compounds in the edible part of fish samples. The method uses a simple liquid extraction by sonication, followed by a direct determination using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The linearity of the instrumental response was good, with average regression coefficients of 0.9971 and 0.9979 for PFOS and PFOA, respectively, and the coefficients of variation (CV) of the method ranged from 8% to 20%. Limits of detection (LOD) were 0.04 ng/g for both the analytes and recoveries were 90% for PFOS and 76% for PFOA. The method was applied to samples of homogenized fillets of wild and farmed fish from the Mediterranean Sea. Most of the samples showed little or no contamination by perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid, and the highest concentrations detected among the fish species analyzed were, respectively, 5.96 ng/g and 1.89 ng/g. The developed analytical methodology can be used as a tool to monitor and to assess human exposure to perfluorinated compounds through sea food consumption.

Millet-porridge with Artemisia annua as first aid for African children with malaria?

OBJECTIVES: In a few malaria-endemic countries with high disease prevalence, especially in children, and local cultivation of Artemisia annua, the availability of recommended malaria medicines is scant. New sources of treatment could be used, drawing from traditional medicine. METHODS: A popular African millet-porridge was prepared by adding dried, sieved leaves of Artemisia annua. Artemisinin concentrations were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: The artemisinin content of the porridge is stable and the concentration is maintained. The taste of the porridge is palatable. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is needed before proposing the millet-porridge artemisinin formulation, but such an affordable therapy could be an option in the near future (also) for children living in poor areas where access to effective antimalarial drugs is precluded.

A new fluorogenic peptide determines proteasome activity in single cells.

The ubiquitin-proteasome system plays a critical role in many diseases, making it an attractive biomarker and therapeutic target. However, the impact of results obtained in vitro using purified proteasome particles or whole cell extracts is limited by the lack of efficient methods to assess proteasome activity in living cells. We have engineered an internally quenched fluorogenic peptide with a proteasome-specific cleavage motif fused to TAT and linked to the fluorophores DABCYL and EDANS. This peptide penetrates cell membranes and is rapidly cleaved by the proteasomal chymotrypsin-like activity, generating a quantitative fluorescent reporter of in vivo proteasome activity as assessed by time-lapse or flow cytometry fluorescence analysis. This reporter is an innovative tool for monitoring proteasomal proteolytic activities in physiological and pathological conditions.