Evaluating the Use of Vibrational Spectroscopy to Detect the Level of Adulteration of Cricket Powder in Plant Flours: The Effect of the Matrix.

Edible insects have been recognised as an alternative food or feed ingredient due to their protein value for both humans and domestic animals. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of both near- (NIR) and mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy to identify and quantify the level of adulteration of cricket powder added into two plant proteins: chickpea and flaxseed meal flour. Cricket flour (CKF) was added to either commercial chickpea (CPF) or flaxseed meal flour (FxMF) at different ratios of 95:5% w/w, 90:10% w/w, 85:15% w/w, 80:20% w/w, 75:25% w/w, 70:30% w/w, 65:35% w/w, 60:40% w/w, or 50:50% w/w. The mixture samples were analysed using an attenuated total reflectance (ATR) MIR instrument and a Fourier transform (FT) NIR instrument. The partial least squares (PLS) cross-validation statistics based on the MIR spectra showed that the coefficient of determination (R2CV) and the standard error in cross-validation (SECV) were 0.94 and 6.68%, 0.91 and 8.04%, and 0.92 and 4.33% for the ALL, CPF vs. CKF, and FxMF vs. CKF mixtures, respectively. The results based on NIR showed that the cross-validation statistics R2CV and SECV were 0.95 and 3.16%, 0.98 and 1.74%, and 0.94 and 3.27% using all the samples analyzed together (ALL), the CPF vs. CKF mixture, and the FxMF vs. CKF mixture, respectively. The results of this study showed the effect of the matrix (type of flour) on the PLS-DA data in both the classification results and the PLS loadings used by the models. The different combination of flours (mixtures) showed differences in the absorbance values at specific wavenumbers in the NIR range that can be used to classify the presence of CKF. Research in this field is valuable in advancing the application of vibrational spectroscopy as routine tools in food analysis and quality control.

Raw Beef Patty Analysis Using Near-Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging: Identification of Four Patty Categories.

South African legislation regulates the classification/labelling and compositional specifications of raw beef patties, to combat processed meat fraud and to protect the consumer. A near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) system was investigated as an alternative authentication technique to the current destructive, time-consuming, labour-intensive and expensive methods. Eight hundred beef patties (ca. 100 g) were made and analysed to assess the potential of NIR-HSI to distinguish between the four patty categories (200 patties per category): premium 'ground patty'; regular 'burger patty'; 'value-burger/patty' and the 'econo-burger'/'budget'. Hyperspectral images were acquired with a HySpex SWIR-384 (short-wave infrared) imaging system using the Breeze® acquisition software, in the wavelength range of 952-2517 nm, after which the data was analysed using image analysis, multivariate techniques and machine learning algorithms. It was possible to distinguish between the four patty categories with accuracies ≥97%, indicating that NIR-HSI offers an accurate and reliable solution for the rapid identification and authentication of processed beef patties. Furthermore, this study has the potential of providing an alternative to the current authentication methods, thus contributing to the authenticity and fair-trade of processed meat products locally and internationally.

Near Infrared Spectroscopy for Prediction of Yeast and Mould Counts in Black Soldier Fly Larvae, Feed and Frass: A Proof of Concept.

The use of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) grown on different organic waste streams as a source of feed ingredient is becoming very popular in several regions across the globe. However, information about the easy-to-use methods to monitor the safety of BSFL is a major step limiting the commercialization of this source of protein. This study investigated the ability of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometrics to predict yeast and mould counts (YMC) in the feed, larvae, and the residual frass. Partial least squares (PLS) regression was employed to predict the YMC in the feed, frass, and BSFL samples analyzed using NIR spectroscopy. The coefficient of determination in cross validation (R2CV) and the standard error in cross validation (SECV) obtained for the prediction of YMC for feed were (R2cv: 0.98 and SECV: 0.20), frass (R2cv: 0.81 and SECV: 0.90), larvae (R2cv: 0.91 and SECV: 0.27), and the combined set (R2cv: 0.74 and SECV: 0.82). However, the standard error of prediction (SEP) was considered moderate (range from 0.45 to 1.03). This study suggested that NIR spectroscopy could be utilized in commercial BSFL production facilities to monitor YMC in the feed and assist in the selection of suitable processing methods and control systems for either feed or larvae quality control.

Monitoring Compositional Changes in Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) Sourced from Different Waste Stream Diets Using Attenuated Total Reflectance Mid Infrared Spectroscopy and Chemometrics.

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L.) larvae are characterized by their ability to convert a variety of organic matter from food waste into a sustainable source of food (e.g., protein). This study aimed to evaluate the use of attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy to monitor changes in the composition as well as to classify black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) samples collected from two growth stages (fifth and sixth instar) and two waste stream diets (bread and vegetables, soy waste). The BSFL samples were fed on either a soy or bread-vegetable mix waste in a control environment (temperature 25 °C, and humidity 70%). The frass and BSFL samples harvested as fifth and sixth instar samples were analyzed using an ATR-MIR instrument where frequencies at specific wavenumbers were compared and evaluated using different chemometric techniques. The PLS regression models yield a coefficient of determination in cross-validation (R2) > 0.80 for the prediction of the type of waste used as diet. The results of this study also indicated that the ratio between the absorbances corresponding to the amide group (1635 cm−1) and lipids (2921 + 2849 cm−1) region was higher in diets containing a high proportion of carbohydrates (e.g., bread-vegetable mix) compared with the soy waste diet. This study demonstrated the ability of MIR spectroscopy to classify BSFL instar samples according to the type of waste stream used as a diet. Overall, ATR-MIR spectroscopy has shown potential to be used as tool to evaluate and monitor the development and growth of BSFL. The utilization of MIR spectroscopy will allow for the development of traceability systems for BSFL. These tools will aid in risk evaluation and the identification of hazards associated with the process, thereby assisting in improving the safety and quality of BSFL intended to be used by the animal feed industry.

Nutritional, anti-nutritional, antioxidant, physicochemical and functional characterization of Australian acacia seed: effect of species and regions.

BACKGROUND: Acacia seed (AS) is an underutilized legume widely distributed in the world, with majority of the species (>70%) found in Australia. Generally, the seeds are not only rich in protein, dietary fibre and potassium, but also possess anti-nutritional compounds. In recent years, there have been an increase in the cultivation of some Australian acacia species such as Acacia victoriae, Acacia cowleana and Acacia coriacea from different regions. However, there is limited information on the composition, anti-nutrients, antioxidant and functional properties of flour from these widely grown Australian AS species. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the properties of these Australian AS species from different geographical regions. RESULTS: The A. cowleana and A. coriacea were characterized by high protein, fat, potassium and soluble carbohydrate. However, higher starch and fibre contents were present in A. victoriae. Greater amounts of anti-nutrients, total phenolics and flavonoids were found in A. cowleana and A. coriacea seeds, whereas A. victoriae had higher 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging capacity. A. victoriae and A. coriacea demonstrated the highest water absorption and solubility index, respectively. However, A. cowleana showed the highest oil absorption index. There was less variation in the composition and properties within species from different regions. CONCLUSION: All samples showed promising nutritional characteristics, although with sufficient diversity to indicate that Australian acacia seeds can be utilized to develop a range of new (functional) food products. Overall, the information obtained will help the food industries with the selection of AS species for food application.

Differentiation of South African Game Meat Using Near-Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy and Hierarchical Modelling.

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, combined with multivariate data analysis techniques, was used to rapidly differentiate between South African game species, irrespective of the treatment (fresh or previously frozen) or the muscle type. These individual classes (fresh; previously frozen; muscle type) were also determined per species, using hierarchical modelling. Spectra were collected with a portable handheld spectrophotometer in the 908-1676-nm range. With partial least squares discriminant analysis models, we could differentiate between the species with accuracies ranging from 89.8%-93.2%. It was also possible to distinguish between fresh and previously frozen meat (90%-100% accuracy). In addition, it was possible to distinguish between ostrich muscles (100%), as well as the forequarters and hindquarters of the zebra (90.3%) and springbok (97.9%) muscles. The results confirm NIR spectroscopy's potential as a rapid and non-destructive method for species identification, fresh and previously frozen meat differentiation, and muscle type determination.

Fermented meat sausages from game and venison: what are the opportunities and limitations?

An increase in the acceptance, demand and production of game meat and venison has been experienced globally. Game meat and venison fit into consumers' ideology of healthy and environmentally friendly meat when compared to domesticated animals. Opportunities exist to explore the use of these meat sources in developing new products, particularly as game meat and venison in their fresh state are sometimes perceived as being tough. Consumers have shown a trend for trying exciting new products with different organoleptic qualities, and fermented sausages occupy a special niche in the gastro-economic trade. In this review, the production potential of game meat and venison and its prospective use in the development of fermented sausages are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the importance of meat characteristics in textural and sensorial development as well as the safety of fermented sausages. Additionally, consumers' perception of venison and game meat is discussed. Possible areas of research and knowledge gaps are highlighted, particularly the potential use of meat with high pH and microbial load. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The development of an improved artificial diet for the mass rearing of Eldana saccharina Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

BACKGROUND: This study determined the nutrient requirements of Eldana saccharina Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a serious sugarcane pest in South Africa, to develop a more efficient artificial diet for mass-rearing purposes for sterile moth production. Diets tested consisted of a minimum specification (MS) diet representing a diet formulated according to the minimum specification of a summary of published diets, which yielded satisfactory results; an ideal amino acid profile (IAAP) diet, where amino acid composition was based on the profile of amino acids in the 2nd (IAAP2) and 5th /6th (IAAP5/6) instar larvae; and lastly two diets based on the nutrient composition of the natural diet of the insects, papyrus (PAP) and sugarcane (SC). Six treatments with 50 replications were randomly allotted to 300 25 mL plastic screw-top vials. The diet (15 mL) was dispensed into each vial and inoculated with two freshly hatched larvae. Larvae, pupae, and moths were harvested at 28 days after inoculation. Overall survivability, pupal weight, sex ratio, and rate of development was determined and compared with the diet currently in use at the South African Sugarcane Research Institute (CON). Physical characteristics of the diets such as the pH and the water-holding capacity of the diets were also determined. RESULTS: The natural diets (PAP and SC) were not viable as they did not yield any results. Survivability was significantly higher (78%) for the MS diet whilst IAAP2 and IAAP5/6 yielded the second highest survivability (74%) compared to CON (68%). There were no differences in male pupal weights between all treatment diets, as was the case for female pupae. Within dietary treatments, female pupae were heavier than male pupae for all treatment diets. CON (1.0: 1.6) produced significantly less male than female pupae with MS (1.0: 1.2), IAAP2 (1.0: 1.0) and IAAP5/6 (1.0: 1.1) all producing equal amounts of male and female pupae. The MS diet (16%) yielded fourfold the number of moths after 28 days compared to CON (4%) and IAAP2 (4%) diets. IAAP5/6 yielded no moths after 28 days. The life stages thus developed fastest in the MS diet. The pH of all treatment diets remained stable for the entire duration of the trial. No biological contamination was observed through all diets. Differences in water-holding capacity were observed between most diets with PAP and SC losing the most moisture whilst the MS and IAAP2 diets retained the most moisture. CONCLUSION: The MS diet most closely represented the nutrient requirements of E. saccharina, leading to its faster development on this formulation, which could be readily applied for large-scale production of this lepidopteran pest as an aid in the mass rearing of sterile males as part of the integrated pest management plan. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Why for feed and not for human consumption? The black soldier fly larvae.

With the surge in consumption of insects, the search continues to find ways to increase the popularity of insect-based products in the Western world. The black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), which is mainly utilized for animal feed, has great potential to provide a sustainable source of nutrients for human food. This review aims to discuss some of the key benefits and challenges of BSFL and their potential role as a food ingredient and/or product for human consumption. Few articles specifically discuss BSFL as a food source, therefore a comprehensive literature search strategy consisted of collecting and evaluating published data about BSFL as animal feed that could be relevant to its use in food. The hurdles that need to be overcome in order to introduce BSFL as a viable food option include safety concerns, technofunctional properties, nutritional aspects, consumer attitudes, and product applications for BSFL.

Acacia seed proteins: Low or high quality? A comprehensive review.

The popularity of adding value to indigenous plant protein sources has increased due to the rise in the world population, high costs of animal protein as compared to plant proteins, and an increase in the consumer awareness of the nutritional and functional roles of dietary plant protein. Seeds of acacia plants (containing over 1,350 species) have considerable amount of protein (18.25% to 35.5%) and nutritionists have shown great interest in assessing the quality and functionality of proteins from these protein-rich plants. In this review, the overall nutritional and health-promoting properties of acacia seed (AS) species are introduced. Extraction, quality, and functional properties of proteins from different AS species are discussed. Furthermore, anti-nutritional components and protease inhibitors present in AS species and the effects of processing methods applied to lower the levels of anti-nutrients are also discussed. Previous applications of AS in food formulations are highlighted. This review aims to provide updated findings that have been reported on AS proteins and to highlight areas for further studies in order to increase the utilization potential of the seeds.

EVALUATION OF THE QUALITY OF IMMOBILIZATION AND CARDIORESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF ETORPHINE-MEDETOMIDINE-AZAPERONE COMBINATION IN PLAINS ZEBRAS (EQUUS QUAGGA): A PILOT STUDY.

Five free-ranging male (subadults, n = 3; adults, n = 2) plains zebras (Equus quagga) were immobilized using a combination of etorphine (0.017 mg/kg), medetomidine (0.017 mg/kg), and azaperone (0.24 mg/kg) by means of a blank cartridge-fired projector. Time to recumbency was recorded and a descriptive score used to assess the quality of immobilization, manipulation, maintenance, and recovery. Physiological parameters were recorded at 5-min intervals for 20 min. At the end of the procedure, naltrexone (0.23 mg/kg) was administered intramuscularly and time to standing documented. The combination evaluated in this study allowed for successful immobilization and safe recovery of all animals, including during the subsequent 15 days. Despite the good outcome in this pilot study, as a result of the periodic apneic events and hypercapnia documented in the zebras, the authors suggest that physiological parameters be thoroughly monitored when using this protocol. Further studies are needed to improve upon chemical immobilization protocols in free-ranging plains zebras.

Effects of chronic hypercapnia and elevated temperature on the immune response of the spiny lobster, Jasus lalandii.

The West Coast rock lobster (WCRL), Jasus lalandii, inhabits highly variable environments frequented by upwelling events, episodes of hypercapnia and large temperature variations. Coupled with the predicted threat of ocean acidification and temperature change for the coming centuries, the immune response in this crustacean will most likely be affected. We therefore tested the hypothesis that chronic exposure to hypercapnia and elevated seawater temperature will alter immune function of the WCRL. The chronic effects of four combinations of two stressors (seawater pCO2 and temperature) on the total number of circulating haemocytes (THC) as well as on the lobsters' ability to clear (inactivate) an injected dose of Vibrio anguillarum from haemolymph circulation were assessed. Juvenile lobsters were held in normocapnic (pH 8.01) or hypercapnic (pH 7.34) conditions at two temperatures (15.6 and 18.9 °C) for 48 weeks (n = 30 lobster per treatment), after which a subsample of lobsters (n = 8/treatment), all at a similar moult stage, were selected from each treatment for the immune challenge. Baseline levels of haemocytes (THC ml-1) and bacteria (CFU ml-1) in their haemolymph were quantified 24 h prior to bacterial challenge. Lobsters were then challenged by injecting 4 × 104V. anguillarum per g body weight directly into the cardiac region of each lobster and circulating haemocyte and culturable bacteria were measured at 20 min post challenge. No significant differences in THC ml-1 (p < 0.05) were observed between any of the treatment groups prior to the bacterial challenge. However lobsters chronically exposed to a combination of hypercapnia and low temperature had significantly higher (p < 0.05) THCs post-challenge in comparison with lobsters chronically exposed to hypercapnia and high temperature. A significant interactive effect was recorded between temperature and pH for the post-challenge THC data (two-way ANOVA, p = 0.0025). Lobster were very efficient at rendering an injected dose of bacteria non-culturable, with more than 83% of the theoretical challenge dose (∼1.7 × 105Vibrio ml-1 haemolymph) inactivated within the first 10 min following injection. Although differences in the inactivation of V. anguillarum were observed between treatment groups, none of these differences were significant. Clearance efficiency was in the following order: Hypercapnia/low temperature > normocapnia/high temperature > normocapnia/low temperature > hypercapnia/high temperature. This study demonstrated that despite chronic exposure to combinations of reduced seawater pH and high temperature, the WCRL was still capable of rapidly rendering an injected dose of bacteria non-culturable.

Gastrointestinal helminths from the common warthog, Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin) (Suidae), in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, with comments on helminths of Suidae and Tayassuidae worldwide.

Thirty warthogs, Phacochoerus africanus, were collected in the Pongola Game Reserve, South Africa and examined for helminths. Gastrointestinal helminth assemblages comprised Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus, the cestode genus Moniezia and seven species of nematodes. A single warthog harboured a metacestode of Taenia hydatigena in the mesenteries. No helminths were found in the heart, lungs or liver of the warthogs. Probstmayria vivipara and Murshidia spp. were the most prevalent as well as abundant helminth species, followed by Physocephalus sexalatus. The incidence of Moniezia did not differ between hosts of different sex or age. Numbers of Murshidia spp. were not affected by host sex, but were higher in adults than in juveniles. Conversely, burdens of Trichostrongylus thomasi were not affected by host age, but were higher in males than in females. While not highly significant, helminth assemblages in male warthogs were more species rich than in females. Helminth communities in the three genera of wild sub-Saharan suids are largely unique, but Ph. africanus and Hylochoerus meinertzhageni share more worm species with each other than with Potamochoerus larvatus, possibly because the former two are more closely related. Overlap between helminth communities of African wild suids and those of other suids and Tayassuidae worldwide is limited.

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pre-pupae meal as a dietary protein source for broiler production ensures a tasty chicken with standard meat quality for every pot.

BACKGROUND: Animal products (fishmeal etc.) are typically used in commercial broiler production systems. However, progressively more pressure is placed on the animal feed industry to find alternative protein sources that are more sustainable, ethical and green, such as insect meal, without having negative effects on the sensory and meat quality. Hence this study aimed to validate the commercial value of black soldier fly (BSF) pre-pupae meal for broiler production by determining the effects of different dietary levels (0%, 5%, 10% or 15%) on carcass, sensory and meat quality. RESULTS: There were no significant differences for the carcass characteristics, pH, colour, thaw loss and cooking loss of the broilers. Treatment had no influence on the sensory characteristics (aroma, flavour, juiciness and tenderness) of the breast muscle (P > 0.05). Mineral content was similar across treatments and no differences (P > 0.05) were observed for the long-chain fatty acid composition of the cooked broiler meat. None of the fatty acids was correlated with chicken flavour. CONCLUSION: BSF pre-pupae meal (up to 15%) can be included in broiler diets without influencing the carcass, sensory or meat quality characteristics. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Development of reduced cost diets for the mass rearing of false codling moth (Thaumatotibia leucotreta).

BACKGROUND: Four trials were conducted; the first established optimal cooking time for false codling moth diets using a microwave oven while the other three trials aimed at determining nutrient requirements, testing these, and evaluating alternative cheaper raw materials. RESULTS: Microwave preparation for 8 min, using a 1000 W microwave oven was found to be the optimal cooking time for all treatment diets at 200 g kg-1 moisture. The minimum specification (MS) diet yielded more larvae per jar (mean ± standard deviation) (759 ± 29) than the control (CON) (652 ± 32) diet and the ideal amino acid profile (IAAP) diet (596 ± 46). The third trial subsequently utilized diets formulated according to the MS diet nutrient specifications but using novel and cheaper raw materials (D1 and D2). Production characteristics of diets D1 and D2 was compared to that of CON. Diets D1 and D2 yielded more larvae per jar (D1 = 911 ± 40; D2 = 830 ± 40) than that of CON (428 ± 40) with the added advantage that the newly formulated diets were cheaper. CONCLUSION: Reduced cost feeds were formulated, mixed and tested which resulted in substantial saving in the mass rearing of the species for integrated pest management. This method shows potential for diet development of other insect species as well. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Campylobacter and Arcobacter species in food-producing animals: prevalence at primary production and during slaughter.

The Campylobacter and Arcobacter genera encompass closely related species that are ubiquitous in nature and are harboured in the gastrointestinal tract of many animals, including food-producing animals (cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry). In humans Campylobacter spp. is the cause of most of the gastroenteritis cases worldwide and in more severe cases the infection can result in Guillian Barré syndrome. Similarly, Arcobacter species can cause gastroenteritis as well as bacteraemia. Infections in humans can be induced by the consumption of contaminated vegetables, meat, milk and water. However, food originating from animals, especially meat, has been recognised as a source of infection, in fact, poultry meat and meat products have been globally reported as the main source of infection. It is clear that food-producing animals are important reservoirs for Campylobacter and Arcobacter species, which implies successful colonisation of the gastrointestinal tract at primary production and contamination during the slaughter process. During slaughter the evisceration step has been recognised as the most likely point of contamination, as accidental spillage of intestinal fluid and rapture of gastrointestinal tract can occur. Therefore, improper hygienic practices can ultimately allow for the contamination of finished/retail products intended for human consumption. This literature review will seek to explore the infection of food-producing animals with Campylobacter and Arcobacter species at primary production and contamination during the slaughter of food-producing animals.

Intake, digestibility, rumen protein synthesis, and growth performance of Malawi Zebu steers fed diets containing rangeland-based protein sources.

The study evaluated effects of feeding Malawi Zebu steers with diets containing baobab (Adansonia digitata) seed meal and white thorn tree (Vachellia polyacantha) leaf-meal as alternative protein sources to soybean meal on dry matter intake (DMI), total tract nutrient digestibility, rumen microbial nitrogen supply and growth performance. Thirty Malawi Zebu steers (181 ± 21.4 kg and 29 months), put into individual pens, were randomly assigned to three treatments (10 steers per treatment) made up of rangeland hay and maize bran with either baobab seed meal (baobab diet), V. polyacantha leaf-meal (Vachellia diet), or soybean meal (soybean diet, control) as the protein source. Steers fed the soybean and baobab diets had higher (P ≤ 0.05) DMI, final BW, average daily gain (ADG), and total tract nutrient digestibility of DM, NDF, CP and crude fat than those fed the Vachellia diet. Steers fed the soybean diet had the highest feed conversion ratio followed by those fed the baobab and Vachellia diets, respectively (P ≤ 0.05). Steers fed the baobab diet had the highest rumen microbial N followed by the soybean- and Vachellia-fed steers in that order (P ≤ 0.05). Steers fed the baobab diet had higher microbial N supply, comparable DMI, ADG, FCR, and nutrient digestibility to the soybean diet. The baobab seed meal could be an alternative protein source to the soybean meal for beef production in Malawi.

Nutrients Composition in Fit Snacks Made from Ostrich, Beef and Chicken Dried Meat.

The aim of the study was to compare three types of meat snacks made from ostrich, beef, and chicken meat in relation to their nutrients content including fat, fatty acids, heme iron, and peptides, like anserine and carnosine, from which human health may potentially benefit. Dry meat samples were produced, from one type of muscle, obtained from ostrich (m.ambiens), beef (m. semimembranosus), and broiler chicken meat (m. pectoralis major). The composition of dried ostrich, beef, and chicken meat, with and without spices was compared. We show that meat snacks made from ostrich, beef, and chicken meat were characterized by high concentration of nutrients including proteins, minerals (heme iron especially in ostrich, than in beef), biologically active peptides (carnosine-in beef, anserine-in ostrich then in chicken meat). The, beneficial to human health, n-3 fatty acids levels differed significantly between species. Moreover, ostrich jerky contained four times less fat as compared to beef and half of that in chicken. In conclusion we can say that dried ostrich, beef, and chicken meat could be a good source of nutritional components.

Sensory quality and fatty acid content of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) meat: influence of farm location and sex.

BACKGROUND: Springbok are harvested for meat production irrespective of farm location or sex from which the meat is derived. The present study investigated the influence of farm location (three farms containing different vegetation types) and sex on the sensory quality of springbok longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle. The sensory profile (aroma, flavour and texture) was determined by descriptive sensory analysis, in addition to determination of the physical meat quality, proximate and fatty acid composition. RESULTS: Farm location had a significant influence on the sensory quality (gamey and liver-like aroma; beef, liver-like, lamb-like and herbaceous flavour; sweet taste; tenderness; residue; mealiness; Warner-Bratzler shear force; moisture, protein and intramuscular lipid content) and fatty acid content (oleic acid; α-linolenic acid; total saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids; polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio; total omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid; and omega-6 to omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio) of springbok meat. Sex influenced the chemical composition of springbok meat; however, the influence on the sensory profile was minor (sweet taste; P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Farm location could influence the sensory quality and composition of springbok meat and should be considered when harvesting for meat production. Sex does not have to be considered for the marketing of springbok meat. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Physico-chemical composition and oxidative stability of South African beef, game, ostrich and pork droëwors.

Droëwors are traditional South African salted and dried sausages, made without nitrites/nitrates and non- fermented. Different meat sources (beef, game and ostrich) are traditionally used in droëwors processing, while the use of pork is uncommon, as it is said to lead to rancidity. The first part of the study analysed the physico-chemical composition of commercially available beef, game and ostrich meat droëwors (n = 20). On average, they were composed of 26.3-29.2 g/100 g moisture, 41.3-44.0 g/100 g protein, 26.2-33.1 g/100 g fat and 5.9-6.5 g/100 g ash and 5.0-5.4 pH. Water activity (0.76-0.82) was sufficiently low to ensure shelf stability at ambient temperatures. In the second part beef and pork droëwors were formulated in accordance with these results and with similar fat content, dried for 2 days (30 °C, 40% relative humidity) and stored for 26 days (25 °C, 50% relative humidity); measuring moisture, water activity, pH and lipid oxidative stability (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)) weekly. At day 5, moisture and thus water activity of pork droëwors was slightly higher compared to beef ones and fat and ash content slightly lower (P ≤ 0.05) despite similar weight loss. Even with slightly less fat, TBARS in pork droëwors were significantly higher after drying and throughout storage (3.83 vs 0.99 mg MDA equivalents/kg dry matter at a maximum).