Silicanin-1 is a conserved diatom membrane protein involved in silica biomineralization.

BACKGROUND: Biological mineral formation (biomineralization) proceeds in specialized compartments often bounded by a lipid bilayer membrane. Currently, the role of membranes in biomineralization is hardly understood. RESULTS: Investigating biomineralization of SiO2 (silica) in diatoms we identified Silicanin-1 (Sin1) as a conserved diatom membrane protein present in silica deposition vesicles (SDVs) of Thalassiosira pseudonana. Fluorescence microscopy of GFP-tagged Sin1 enabled, for the first time, to follow the intracellular locations of a biomineralization protein during silica biogenesis in vivo. The analysis revealed incorporation of the N-terminal domain of Sin1 into the biosilica via association with the organic matrix inside the SDVs. In vitro experiments showed that the recombinant N-terminal domain of Sin1 undergoes pH-triggered assembly into large clusters, and promotes silica formation by synergistic interaction with long-chain polyamines. CONCLUSIONS: Sin1 is the first identified SDV transmembrane protein, and is highly conserved throughout the diatom realm, which suggests a fundamental role in the biomineralization of diatom silica. Through interaction with long-chain polyamines, Sin1 could serve as a molecular link by which the SDV membrane exerts control on the assembly of biosilica-forming organic matrices in the SDV lumen.

Biochemical Composition and Assembly of Biosilica-associated Insoluble Organic Matrices from the Diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana.

The nano- and micropatterned biosilica cell walls of diatoms are remarkable examples of biological morphogenesis and possess highly interesting material properties. Only recently has it been demonstrated that biosilica-associated organic structures with specific nanopatterns (termed insoluble organic matrices) are general components of diatom biosilica. The model diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana contains three types of insoluble organic matrices: chitin meshworks, organic microrings, and organic microplates, the latter being described in the present study for the first time. To date, little is known about the molecular composition, intracellular assembly, and biological functions of organic matrices. Here we have performed structural and functional analyses of the organic microrings and organic microplates from T. pseudonana. Proteomics analysis yielded seven proteins of unknown function (termed SiMat proteins) together with five known silica biomineralization proteins (four cingulins and one silaffin). The location of SiMat1-GFP in the insoluble organic microrings and the similarity of tyrosine- and lysine-rich functional domains identifies this protein as a new member of the cingulin protein family. Mass spectrometric analysis indicates that most of the lysine residues of cingulins and the other insoluble organic matrix proteins are post-translationally modified by short polyamine groups, which are known to enhance the silica formation activity of proteins. Studies with recombinant cingulins (rCinY2 and rCinW2) demonstrate that acidic conditions (pH 5.5) trigger the assembly of mixed cingulin aggregates that have silica formation activity. Our results suggest an important role for cingulins in the biogenesis of organic microrings and support the hypothesis that this type of insoluble organic matrix functions in biosilica morphogenesis.

GDF-5 can act as a context-dependent BMP-2 antagonist.

BACKGROUND: Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2 and growth and differentiation factor (GDF)-5 are two related transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß family members with important functions in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. BMP-2 is best known for its osteoinductive properties whereas GDF-5-as evident from its alternative name, cartilage derived morphogenetic protein 1-plays an important role in the formation of cartilage. In spite of these differences both factors signal by binding to the same subset of BMP receptors, raising the question how these different functionalities are generated. The largest difference in receptor binding is observed in the interaction with the type I receptor BMPR-IA. GDF-5, in contrast to BMP-2, shows preferential binding to the isoform BMPR-IB, which is abrogated by a single amino acid (A57R) substitution. The resulting variant, GDF-5 R57A, represents a "BMP-2 mimic" with respect to BMP receptor binding. In this study we thus wanted to analyze whether the two growth factors can induce distinct signals via an identically composed receptor. RESULTS: Unexpectedly and dependent on the cellular context, GDF-5 R57A showed clear differences in its activity compared to BMP-2. In ATDC-5 cells, both ligands induced alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression with similar potency. But in C2C12 cells, the BMP-2 mimic GDF-5 R57A (and also wild-type GDF-5) clearly antagonized BMP-2-mediated ALP expression, despite signaling in both cell lines occurring solely via BMPR-IA. The BMP-2- antagonizing properties of GDF-5 and GDF-5 R57A could also be observed in vivo when implanting BMP-2 and either one of the two GDF-5 ligands simultaneously at heterotopic sites. CONCLUSIONS: Although comparison of the crystal structures of the GDF-5 R57A:BMPR-IAEC- and BMP-2:BMPR-IAEC complex revealed small ligand-specific differences, these cannot account for the different signaling characteristics because the complexes seem identical in both differently reacting cell lines. We thus predict an additional component, most likely a not yet identified GDF-5-specific co-receptor, which alters the output of the signaling complexes. Hence the presence or absence of this component then switches GDF-5's signaling capabilities to act either similar to BMP-2 or as a BMP-2 antagonist. These findings might shed new light on the role of GDF-5, e.g., in cartilage maintenance and/or limb development in that it might act as an inhibitor of signaling events initiated by other BMPs.

A substrate-optimized electrophoretic mobility shift assay for ADAM12.

ADAM12 belongs to the A disintegrin and metalloprotease (ADAM) family of secreted sheddases activating extracellular growth factors such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) ligands and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). ADAM proteases, most notably ADAM17 (TNF-α-converting enzyme), have long been investigated as pharmaceutical drug targets; however, due to lack of potency and in vivo side effects, none of the small-molecule inhibitors discovered so far has made it beyond clinical testing. Ongoing research on novel selective inhibitors of ADAMs requires reliable biochemical assays to validate molecular probes from large-scale screening efforts. Here we describe an electrophoretic mobility shift assay for ADAM12 based on the identification of an optimized peptide substrate that is characterized by excellent performance and reproducibility.

ADAM12 is expressed in the tumour vasculature and mediates ectodomain shedding of several membrane-anchored endothelial proteins.

ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase) 12 is a metalloprotease implicated in cancer progression. ADAM12 can activate membrane-anchored proteins, such as sonic hedgehog, Delta-like 1 and certain epidermal growth factor receptor ligands, through a process called ectodomain shedding. We screened several membrane-anchored proteins to further dissect the substrate profile of ADAM12-mediated ectodomain shedding, and found shedding of five previously unreported substrates [Kitl1, VE-cadherin (vascular endothelial cadherin), Flk-1 (fetal liver kinase 1), Tie-2, and VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule 1)], of which the latter four are specifically expressed by endothelial cells. We also observed that ADAM12 expression was increased in the tumour vasculature of infiltrating ductal carcinoma of the human breast as compared with little to no expression in normal breast tissue vasculature, suggesting a role for ADAM12 in tumour vessels. These results prompted us to further evaluate ADAM12-mediated shedding of two endothelial cell proteins, VE-cadherin and Tie-2. Endogenous ADAM12 expression was very low in cultured endothelial cells, but was significantly increased by cytokine stimulation. In parallel, the shed form of VE-cadherin was elevated in such cytokine-stimulated endothelial cells, and ADAM12 siRNA (small interfering RNA) knockdown reduced cytokine-induced shedding of VE-cadherin. In conclusion, the results of the present study demonstrate a role for ADAM12 in ectodomain shedding of several membrane-anchored endothelial proteins. We speculate that this process may have importance in tumour neovascularization or/and tumour cell extravasation.

Crystal structure analysis reveals a spring-loaded latch as molecular mechanism for GDF-5-type I receptor specificity.

Dysregulation of growth and differentiation factor 5 (GDF-5) signalling, a member of the TGF-beta superfamily, is strongly linked to skeletal malformation. GDF-5-mediated signal transduction involves both BMP type I receptors, BMPR-IA and BMPR-IB. However, mutations in either GDF-5 or BMPR-IB lead to similar phenotypes, indicating that in chondrogenesis GDF-5 signalling seems to be exclusively mediated through BMPR-IB. Here, we present structural insights into the GDF-5:BMPR-IB complex revealing how binding specificity for BMPR-IB is generated on a molecular level. In BMPR-IB, a loop within the ligand-binding epitope functions similar to a latch allowing high-affinity binding of GDF-5. In BMPR-IA, this latch is in a closed conformation leading to steric repulsion. The new structural data now provide also a molecular basis of how phenotypically relevant missense mutations in GDF-5 might impair receptor binding and activation.

Screening of genetic parameters for soluble protein expression in Escherichia coli.

Soluble expression of proteins in a relevant form for functional and structural investigations still often remains a challenge. Although many biochemical factors are known to affect solubility, a thorough investigation of yield-limiting factors is normally not feasible in high-throughput efforts. Here we present a screening strategy for expression of biomedically relevant proteins in Escherichia coli using a panel of six different genetic variations. These include engineered strains for rare codon supplementation, increased disulfide bond formation in the cytoplasm and novel vectors for secretion to the periplasm or culture medium. Combining these variants with expression construct truncations design, we report on parallel cloning and expression of more than 300 constructs representing 24 selected proteins; including full-length variants of human growth factors, interleukins and growth factor binding proteins. This rapid screening approach appears highly suitable for high-throughput efforts targeting either large sets of proteins or more focused investigations regarding individual high-profile targets.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary data analysis of the ligand-receptor complex of the growth and differentiation factor 5 variant R57A (GDF5R57A) and BMP receptor IA (BRIA).

The binary ligand-receptor complex of human growth and differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) bound to its type I receptor BMP receptor IA (BRIA) was prepared and crystallized. By utilizing the GDF5 variant R57A, which exhibits a high affinity in the subnanomolar range for BRIA, the binary complex of GDF5R57A bound to the extracellular domain of BRIA could be produced and purified. Crystals of this complex belonged to a monoclinic space group: either I2, with unit-cell parameters a = 63.81, b = 62.85, c = 124.99 Å, ß = 95.9°, or C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 132.17, b = 62.78, c = 63.53 Å, ß = 112.8°.

Crystallization of BMP receptor type IA bound to the antibody Fab fragment AbD1556.

An antibody Fab fragment, AbD1556, was selected against the extracellular domain of BMP receptor type IA, which blocks the binding of BMP-2 to BMPR-IA and thereby neutralizes BMP-2 activity. To study the mechanism by which BMPR-IA is recognized and bound by the Fab fragment, the complex of AbD1556 bound to BMPR-IA was prepared and crystallized. Crystals of this binary complex belonged to the monoclinic space group P2(1), with unit-cell parameters a=89.32, b=129.25, c=100.24 A, beta=92.27 degrees.

Five amino acids in the innermost cavity of the substrate binding cleft of organic cation transporter 1 interact with extracellular and intracellular corticosterone.

We have shown previously that Leu447 and Gln448 in the transmembrane helix (TMH) 10 of rat organic cation transporter rOCT1 are critical for inhibition of cation uptake by corticosterone. Here, we tested whether the affinity of corticosterone is different when applied from the extracellular or intracellular side. The affinity of corticosterone was determined by measuring the inhibition of currents induced by tetraethylammonium(+) (TEA(+)) in Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing rOCT1. Either corticosterone and TEA(+) were added to the bath simultaneously or the oocytes were preincubated with corticosterone, washed, and TEA(+)-induced currents were determined subsequently. In mutant L447Y, K(i) values for extracellular and intracellular corticosterone were decreased, whereas in mutant Q448E, only the K(i) for intracellular corticosterone was changed. Modeling of the interaction of corticosterone with rOCT1 in the inward- or outward-facing conformation predicted direct binding to Leu447, Phe160 (TMH2), Trp218 (TMH4), Arg440 (TMH10), and Asp475 (TM11) from both sides. In mutant F160A, affinities for extracellular and intracellular corticosterone were increased, whereas maximal inhibition was reduced in W218F and R440K. In stably transfected epithelial cells, the affinities for inhibition of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridinium(+) (MPP(+)) uptake by extracellular and intracellular corticosterone were decreased when Asp475 was replaced by glutamate. In mutants F160A, W218Y, R440K, and L447F, the affinities for MPP(+) uptake were changed, and in mutant D475E, the affinity for TEA(+) uptake was changed. The data suggest that Phe160, Trp218, Arg440, Leu447, and Asp475 are located within an innermost cavity of the binding cleft that is alternatingly exposed to the extracellular or intracellular side during substrate transport.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary data analysis of ligand-receptor complexes of growth and differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) and BMP receptor IB (BRIB).

The ligand-receptor complex of GDF5 bound to its type I and type II receptors BRIB and ActRIIB was produced and crystallized. Crystals of the GDF5-BRIB complex could only be obtained if a ternary complex comprising GDF5, BRIB and the extracellular domain of the type II receptor ActRIIB was used in crystallization; however, the type II receptor ActRIIB was lost during crystallization. Crystals of this complex belonged to the tetragonal space group P4(2)2(1)2, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 76.46, c = 82.78 A. Small changes in the crystallization condition resulted in crystals with a different morphology. These crystals consisted of the full ternary complex GDF5-BRIB-ActRIIB, but only diffracted to low resolution.

The solution structure of BMPR-IA reveals a local disorder-to-order transition upon BMP-2 binding.

The structure of the extracellular domain of BMP receptor IA was determined in solution by NMR spectroscopy and compared to its structure when bound to its ligand BMP-2. While most parts of the secondary structure are highly conserved between the bound and unbound forms, large conformational rearrangements can be observed in the beta4beta5 loop of BMPR-IA, which is in contact with BMP-2 and harbors the main binding determinants for the BMPR-IA-BMP-2 interaction. In its unbound form, helix alpha1 in BMPR-IA, which is in the center of the binding epitope for BMP-2, is missing. Since BMP-2 also shows conformational changes in the type I receptor epitope upon binding to BMPR-IA, both binding partners pass through an induced fit mechanism to adapt their binding interfaces to a given interaction surface. The inherent flexibility of both partners possibly explains the promiscuous ligand-receptor interaction observed in the BMP protein superfamily.

Type I receptor binding of bone morphogenetic protein 6 is dependent on N-glycosylation of the ligand.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), together with transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and activins/inhibins, constitute the TGF-beta superfamily of ligands. This superfamily is formed by more than 30 structurally related secreted proteins. The crystal structure of human BMP-6 was determined to a resolution of 2.1 A; the overall structure is similar to that of other TGF-beta superfamily ligands, e.g. BMP-7. The asymmetric unit contains the full dimeric BMP-6, indicating possible asymmetry between the two monomeric subunits. Indeed, the conformation of several loops differs between both monomers. In particular, the prehelix loop, which plays a crucial role in the type I receptor interactions of BMP-2, adopts two rather different conformations in BMP-6, indicating possible dynamic flexibility of the prehelix loop in its unbound conformation. Flexibility of this loop segment has been discussed as an important feature required for promiscuous binding of different type I receptors to BMPs. Further studies investigating the interaction of BMP-6 with different ectodomains of type I receptors revealed that N-glycosylation at Asn73 of BMP-6 in the wrist epitope is crucial for recognition by the activin receptor type I. In the absence of the carbohydrate moiety, activin receptor type I-mediated signaling of BMP-6 is totally diminished. Thus, flexibility within the binding epitope of BMP-6 and an unusual recognition motif, i.e. an N-glycosylation motif, possibly play an important role in type I receptor specificity of BMP-6.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of the complex of the first von Willebrand type C domain bound to bone morphogenetic protein 2.

Crossveinless 2 (CV2) is a member of the chordin family, a protein superfamily that modulates the activity of bone morphogenetic proteins such as BMP2. The BMPs represent a large group of secreted proteins that control many steps during embryonal development and in tissue and organ homeostasis in the adult organism. The gene encoding the first von Willebrand type C domain (VWC1) of CV2 was cloned, expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The binary complex of CV2 VWC1 and BMP2 was purified and subjected to crystallization. Crystals of SeMet-labelled proteins were obtained in two different forms belonging to the tetragonal space groups P4(1)2(1)2 and I4(1), with unit-cell parameters a = b = 86.7, c = 139.2 A and a = b = 83.7, c = 139.6 A, respectively. Initial analysis suggests that a complete binary complex consisting of one BMP2 dimer bound to two CV2 VWC1 domains is present in the asymmetric unit.

A silent H-bond can be mutationally activated for high-affinity interaction of BMP-2 and activin type IIB receptor.

BACKGROUND: Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are key regulators in the embryonic development and postnatal tissue homeostasis in all animals. Loss of function or dysregulation of BMPs results in severe diseases or even lethality. Like transforming growth factors beta (TGF-betas), activins, growth and differentiation factors (GDFs) and other members of the TGF-beta superfamily, BMPs signal by assembling two types of serine/threonine-kinase receptor chains to form a hetero-oligomeric ligand-receptor complex. BMP ligand receptor interaction is highly promiscuous, i.e. BMPs bind more than one receptor of each subtype, and a receptor bind various ligands. The activin type II receptors are of particular interest, since they bind a large number of diverse ligands. In addition they act as high-affinity receptors for activins but are also low-affinity receptors for BMPs. ActR-II and ActR-IIB therefore represent an interesting example how affinity and specificity might be generated in a promiscuous background. RESULTS: Here we present the high-resolution structures of the ternary complexes of wildtype and a variant BMP-2 bound to its high-affinity type I receptor BMPR-IA and its low-affinity type II receptor ActR-IIB and compare them with the known structures of binary and ternary ligand-receptor complexes of BMP-2. In contrast to activin or TGF-beta3 no changes in the dimer architecture of the BMP-2 ligand occur upon complex formation. Functional analysis of the ActR-IIB binding epitope shows that hydrophobic interactions dominate in low-affinity binding of BMPs; polar interactions contribute only little to binding affinity. However, a conserved H-bond in the center of the type II ligand-receptor interface, which does not contribute to binding in the BMP-2 - ActR-IIB interaction can be mutationally activated resulting in a BMP-2 variant with high-affinity for ActR-IIB. Further mutagenesis studies were performed to elucidate the binding mechanism allowing us to construct BMP-2 variants with defined type II receptor binding properties. CONCLUSION: Binding specificity of BMP-2 for its three type II receptors BMPR-II, Act-RII and ActR-IIB is encoded on single amino acid level. Exchange of only one or two residues results in BMP-2 variants with a dramatically altered type II receptor specificity profile, possibly allowing construction of BMP-2 variants that address a single type II receptor. The structure-/function studies presented here revealed a new mechanism, in which the energy contribution of a conserved H-bond is modulated by surrounding intramolecular interactions to achieve a switch between low- and high-affinity binding.

A single residue of GDF-5 defines binding specificity to BMP receptor IB.

Growth and differentiation factor 5 (GDF-5), a member of the TGF-beta superfamily, is involved in many developmental processes, like chondrogenesis and joint formation. Mutations in GDF-5 lead to diseases, e.g. chondrodysplasias like Hunter-Thompson, Grebe and DuPan syndromes and brachydactyly. Similar to other TGF-beta superfamily members, GDF-5 transmits signals through binding to two different types of membrane-bound serine-/threonine-kinase receptors termed type I and type II. In contrast to the large number of ligands, only seven type I and five type II receptors have been identified to date, implicating a limited promiscuity in ligand-receptor interaction. However, in contrast to other members of the TGF-beta superfamily, GDF-5 shows a pronounced specificity in type I receptor interaction in cross-link experiments binding only to BMP receptor IB (BMPR-IB). In mice, deletion of either GDF-5 or BMPR-IB results in a similar phenotype, indicating that GDF-5 signaling is highly dependent on BMPR-IB. Here, we demonstrate by biosensor analysis that GDF-5 also binds to BMP receptor IA (BMPR-IA) but with approximately 12-fold lower affinity. Structural and mutational analyses revealed a single residue of GDF-5, Arg57 located in the pre-helix loop, being solely responsible for the high binding specificity to BMPR-IB. In contrast to wild-type GDF-5, variant GDF-5R57A interacts with BMPR-IA and BMPR-IB with a comparable high binding affinity. These results provide important insights into how receptor-binding specificity is generated at the molecular level and might be useful for the generation of receptor subtype specific activators or inhibitors.

A regioselective tryptophan 5-halogenase is involved in pyrroindomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces rugosporus LL-42D005.

The antibiotic compound pyrroindomycin B contains an indole ring chlorinated in the 5 position. The indole ring is probably derived from tryptophan, and thus primers derived from conserved regions of tryptophan halogenases were used to amplify and clone a DNA fragment that was then used to isolate a tryptophan 5-halogenase gene (pyrH) from a cosmid library of the pyrroindomycin producer Streptomyces rugosporus LL-42D005. A gene disruption mutant in the tryptophan 5-halogenase gene no longer produced pyrroindomycin B, but still produced pyrroindomycin A, the nonhalogenated derivative. The halogenase gene could be overexpressed in Pseudomonas fluorescens BL915 DeltaORF1 and was purified to homogeneity by immobilized metal chelate ion affinity chromatography. Chlorinating and brominating activities with tryptophan as a substrate were detected in cell-free extracts and for the purified enzyme.

A secretory system for bacterial production of high-profile protein targets.

Escherichia coli represents a robust, inexpensive expression host for the production of recombinant proteins. However, one major limitation is that certain protein classes do not express well in a biologically relevant form using standard expression approaches in the cytoplasm of E. coli. To improve the usefulness of the E. coli expression platform we have investigated combinations of promoters and selected N-terminal fusion tags for the extracellular expression of human target proteins. A comparative study was conducted on 24 target proteins fused to outer membrane protein A (OmpA), outer membrane protein F (OmpF) and osmotically inducible protein Y (OsmY). Based on the results of this initial study, we carried out an extended expression screen employing the OsmY fusion and multiple constructs of a more diverse set of human proteins. Using this high-throughput compatible system, we clearly demonstrate that secreted biomedically relevant human proteins can be efficiently retrieved and purified from the growth medium.

Structure analysis of the IL-5 ligand-receptor complex reveals a wrench-like architecture for IL-5Rα.

Interleukin-5 (IL-5) is the key mediator for the function of eosinophil granulocytes, whose deregulation is characteristic of hypereosinophilic diseases and presumably contributes to allergic asthma. IL-5 signaling involves two transmembrane receptors, IL-5Rα and the common ß chain, which upon formation of the ternary complex activate the JAK/STAT signaling cascade. To investigate the mechanism underlying ligand-receptor recognition, we determined the structure of IL-5 bound to the extracellular domain of IL-5Rα. IL-5 makes contact with all three fibronectin III-like domains of IL-5Rα, with the receptor architecture resembling a wrench. Mutagenesis data provide evidence that this wrench-like architecture is likely preformed. The structure demonstrates that for steric reasons, homodimeric IL-5 can bind only one receptor molecule, even though two equivalent receptor-binding sites exist. In regard to strong efforts being made to develop IL-5 antagonists for treating asthma and hypereosinophilic diseases, the advances in molecular understanding provided by this structure are of greatest value.

A selection fit mechanism in BMP receptor IA as a possible source for BMP ligand-receptor promiscuity.

BACKGROUND: Members of the TGF-ß superfamily are characterized by a highly promiscuous ligand-receptor interaction as is readily apparent from the numeral discrepancy of only seven type I and five type II receptors available for more than 40 ligands. Structural and functional studies have been used to address the question of how specific signals can be deduced from a limited number of receptor combinations and to unravel the molecular mechanisms underlying the protein-protein recognition that allow such limited specificity. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study we have investigated how an antigen binding antibody fragment (Fab) raised against the extracellular domain of the BMP receptor type IA (BMPR-IA) recognizes the receptor's BMP-2 binding epitope and thereby neutralizes BMP-2 receptor activation. The crystal structure of the complex of the BMPR-IA ectodomain bound to the Fab AbD1556 revealed that the contact surface of BMPR-IA overlaps extensively with the contact surface for BMP-2 interaction. Although the structural epitopes of BMPR-IA to both binding partners coincides, the structures of BMPR-IA in the two complexes differ significantly. In contrast to the structural differences, alanine-scanning mutagenesis of BMPR-IA showed that the functional determinants for binding to the antibody and BMP-2 are almost identical. CONCLUSIONS: Comparing the structures of BMPR-IA bound to BMP-2 or bound to the Fab AbD1556 with the structure of unbound BMPR-IA shows that binding of BMPR-IA to its interaction partners follows a selection fit mechanism, possibly indicating that the ligand promiscuity of BMPR-IA is inherently encoded by structural adaptability. The functional and structural analysis of the BMPR-IA binding antibody AbD1556 mimicking the BMP-2 binding epitope may thus pave the way for the design of low-molecular weight synthetic receptor binders/inhibitors.