Mechanism of single-stranded DNA annealing by RAD52-RPA complex.

RAD52 is important for the repair of DNA double-stranded breaks1,2, mitotic DNA synthesis3-5 and alternative telomere length maintenance6,7. Central to these functions, RAD52 promotes the annealing of complementary single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)8,9 and provides an alternative to BRCA2/RAD51-dependent homologous recombination repair10. Inactivation of RAD52 in homologous-recombination-deficient BRCA1- or BRCA2-defective cells is synthetically lethal11,12, and aberrant expression of RAD52 is associated with poor cancer prognosis13,14. As a consequence, RAD52 is an attractive therapeutic target against homologous-recombination-deficient breast, ovarian and prostate cancers15-17. Here we describe the structure of RAD52 and define the mechanism of annealing. As reported previously18-20, RAD52 forms undecameric (11-subunit) ring structures, but these rings do not represent the active form of the enzyme. Instead, cryo-electron microscopy and biochemical analyses revealed that ssDNA annealing is driven by RAD52 open rings in association with replication protein-A (RPA). Atomic models of the RAD52-ssDNA complex show that ssDNA sits in a positively charged channel around the ring. Annealing is driven by the RAD52 N-terminal domains, whereas the C-terminal regions modulate the open-ring conformation and RPA interaction. RPA associates with RAD52 at the site of ring opening with critical interactions occurring between the RPA-interacting domain of RAD52 and the winged helix domain of RPA2. Our studies provide structural snapshots throughout the annealing process and define the molecular mechanism of ssDNA annealing by the RAD52-RPA complex.

TDP-43 loss and ALS-risk SNPs drive mis-splicing and depletion of UNC13A.

Variants of UNC13A, a critical gene for synapse function, increase the risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia1-3, two related neurodegenerative diseases defined by mislocalization of the RNA-binding protein TDP-434,5. Here we show that TDP-43 depletion induces robust inclusion of a cryptic exon in UNC13A, resulting in nonsense-mediated decay and loss of UNC13A protein. Two common intronic UNC13A polymorphisms strongly associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia risk overlap with TDP-43 binding sites. These polymorphisms potentiate cryptic exon inclusion, both in cultured cells and in brains and spinal cords from patients with these conditions. Our findings, which demonstrate a genetic link between loss of nuclear TDP-43 function and disease, reveal the mechanism by which UNC13A variants exacerbate the effects of decreased TDP-43 function. They further provide a promising therapeutic target for TDP-43 proteinopathies.

Pediatric oncology provider perspectives and patient/family perceptions of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting management: Experiences at an academic medical center.

BACKGROUND: Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) is common in children undergoing cancer treatment, and significantly impacts quality of life. Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) have been developed to guide CINV management, though many patients do not receive guideline-concordant care. Few studies have examined provider perspectives on CINV management or preferred improvement approaches, or pediatric patient perception of CINV control. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of pediatric oncology providers was conducted at a large freestanding children's hospital. Providers completed an anonymous online survey about CINV control in patients admitted for scheduled chemotherapy, and their knowledge and utilization of CINV CPGs. A survey of English and Spanish-speaking pediatric oncology patients admitted for scheduled chemotherapy was conducted to assess CINV management, with key demographics used to understand association with perceptions and adherence to antiemetic guidelines. RESULTS: For providers, 75% of respondents felt CINV management could be moderately or extremely improved, significantly more so by chemotherapy prescribers and pediatric medical residents than nurses. Over half of respondents did not have awareness of CINV CPGs, particularly pediatric medical residents. For patients, nausea was reported to be extremely well controlled in 44% of cases, and vomiting extremely well controlled in 50% of cases. There were no significant differences in patient-reported CINV across demographics, when considering emetogenicity of chemotherapy received, or concordance to guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing education in this area may help to improve provider comfort, and ultimately, the patient experience. Future studies will expand upon this novel patient perception, and develop and evaluate CINV management interventions.

A Single-Molecule Strategy to Capture Non-native Intramolecular and Intermolecular Protein Disulfide Bridges.

Non-native disulfide bonds are dynamic covalent bridges that form post-translationally between two cysteines within the same protein (intramolecular) or with a neighboring protein (intermolecular), frequently due to changes in the cellular redox potential. The reversible formation of non-native disulfides is intimately linked to alterations in protein function; while they can provide a mechanism to protect against cysteine overoxidation, they are also involved in the early stages of protein multimerization, a hallmark of several protein aggregation diseases. Yet their identification using current protein chemistry technology remains challenging, mainly because of their fleeting reactivity. Here, we use single-molecule spectroscopy AFM and molecular dynamics simulations to capture both intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds in γD-crystallin, a cysteine-rich, structural human lens protein involved in age-related eye cataracts. Our approach showcases the power of mechanical force as a conformational probe in dynamically evolving proteins and presents a platform to detect non-native disulfide bridges with single-molecule resolution.

Human Mat2A Uses an Ordered Kinetic Mechanism and Is Stabilized but Not Regulated by Mat2B.

Methionine adenosyltransferase (MAT) catalyzes the adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and l-methionine (l-Met) dependent formation of S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM), the principal methyl donor of most biological transmethylation reactions. We carried out in-depth kinetic studies to further understand its mechanism and interaction with a potential regulator, Mat2B. The initial velocity pattern and results of product inhibition by SAM, phosphate, and pyrophosphate, and dead-end inhibition by the l-Met analog cycloleucine (l-cLeu) suggest that Mat2A follows a strictly ordered kinetic mechanism where ATP binds before l-Met and with SAM released prior to random release of phosphate and pyrophosphate. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) showed binding of ATP to Mat2A with a Kd of 80 ± 30 µM, which is close to the Km(ATP) of 50 ± 10 µM. In contrast, l-Met or l-cLeu showed no binding to Mat2A in the absence of ATP; however, binding to l-cLeu was observed in the presence of ATP. The ITC results are fully consistent with the product and dead-inhibition results obtained. We also carried out kinetic studies in the presence of the physiological regulator Mat2B. Under conditions where all Mat2A is found in complex with Mat2B, no significant change in the kinetic parameters was observed despite confirmation of a very high binding affinity of Mat2A to Mat2B (Kd of 6 ± 1 nM). Finally, we found that while Mat2A is unstable at low concentrations (<100 nM), rapidly losing activity at 37 °C, it retained full activity for at least 2 h when Mat2B was present at the known 2:1 Mat2A/Mat2B stoichiometry.

A malaria parasite subtilisin propeptide-like protein is a potent inhibitor of the egress protease SUB1.

Subtilisin-like serine peptidases (subtilases) play important roles in the life cycle of many organisms, including the protozoan parasites that are the causative agent of malaria, Plasmodium spp. As with other peptidases, subtilase proteolytic activity has to be tightly regulated in order to prevent potentially deleterious uncontrolled protein degradation. Maturation of most subtilases requires the presence of an N-terminal propeptide that facilitates folding of the catalytic domain. Following its proteolytic cleavage, the propeptide acts as a transient, tightly bound inhibitor until its eventual complete removal to generate active protease. Here we report the identification of a stand-alone malaria parasite propeptide-like protein, called SUB1-ProM, encoded by a conserved gene that lies in a highly syntenic locus adjacent to three of the four subtilisin-like genes in the Plasmodium genome. Template-based modelling and ab initio structure prediction showed that the SUB1-ProM core structure is most similar to the X-ray crystal structure of the propeptide of SUB1, an essential parasite subtilase that is discharged into the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) to trigger parasite release (egress) from infected host cells. Recombinant Plasmodium falciparum SUB1-ProM was found to be a fast-binding, potent inhibitor of P. falciparum SUB1, but not of the only other essential blood-stage parasite subtilase, SUB2, or of other proteases examined. Mass-spectrometry and immunofluorescence showed that SUB1-ProM is expressed in the PV of blood stage P. falciparum, where it may act as an endogenous inhibitor to regulate SUB1 activity in the parasite.

Structural basis for Fc receptor recognition of immunoglobulin M.

Immunoglobulin Fc receptors are cell surface transmembrane proteins that bind to the Fc constant region of antibodies and play critical roles in regulating immune responses by activation of immune cells, clearance of immune complexes and regulation of antibody production. FcµR is the immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody isotype-specific Fc receptor involved in the survival and activation of B cells. Here we reveal eight binding sites for the human FcµR immunoglobulin domain on the IgM pentamer by cryogenic electron microscopy. One of the sites overlaps with the binding site for the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR), but a different mode of FcµR binding explains its antibody isotype specificity. Variation in FcµR binding sites and their occupancy reflects the asymmetry of the IgM pentameric core and the versatility of FcµR binding. The complex explains engagement with polymeric serum IgM and the monomeric IgM B-cell receptor (BCR).

Transcriptome-wide RNA binding analysis of C9orf72 poly(PR) dipeptides.

An intronic GGGGCC repeat expansion in C9orf72 is a common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia. The repeats are transcribed in both sense and antisense directions to generate distinct dipeptide repeat proteins, of which poly(GA), poly(GR), and poly(PR) have been implicated in contributing to neurodegeneration. Poly(PR) binding to RNA may contribute to toxicity, but analysis of poly(PR)-RNA binding on a transcriptome-wide scale has not yet been carried out. We therefore performed crosslinking and immunoprecipitation (CLIP) analysis in human cells to identify the RNA binding sites of poly(PR). We found that poly(PR) binds to nearly 600 RNAs, with the sequence GAAGA enriched at the binding sites. In vitro experiments showed that poly(GAAGA) RNA binds poly(PR) with higher affinity than control RNA and induces the phase separation of poly(PR) into condensates. These data indicate that poly(PR) preferentially binds to poly(GAAGA)-containing RNAs, which may have physiological consequences.

Functional interactions as a survival strategy against abnormal aggregation.

Protein aggregation is under intense scrutiny because of its role in human disease. Although increasing evidence indicates that protein native states are highly protected against aggregation, the specific protection mechanisms are poorly understood. Insight into such mechanisms can be gained through study of the relatively few proteins that aggregate under native conditions. Ataxin-3, the protein responsible for Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3, a polyglutamine expansion disease, represents one of such examples. Polyglutamine expansion is central for determining solubility and aggregation rates of ataxin-3, but these properties are profoundly modulated by its N-terminal Josephin domain. This work aims at identifying the regions that promote Josephin fibrillogenesis and rationalizing the mechanisms that protect Josephin and nonexpanded ataxin-3 from aberrant aggregation. Using different biophysical techniques, aggregation propensity predictions and rational design of amino acid substitutions, we show that Josephin has an intrinsic tendency to fibrillize under native conditions and that fibrillization is promoted by two solvent-exposed patches, which are also involved in recognition of natural substrates, such as ubiquitin. Indeed, designed mutations at these patches or substrate binding significantly reduce Josephin aggregation kinetics. Our results provide evidence that protein nonpathologic function can play an active role in preventing aberrant fibrillization and suggest the molecular mechanism whereby this occurs in ataxin-3.

The Josephin domain determines the morphological and mechanical properties of ataxin-3 fibrils.

Fibrillar aggregation of the protein ataxin-3 is linked to the inherited neurodegenerative disorder Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3, a member of the polyQ expansion disease family. We previously reported that aggregation and stability of the nonpathological form of ataxin-3, carrying an unexpanded polyQ tract, are modulated by its N-terminal Josephin domain. It was also shown that expanded ataxin-3 aggregates via a two-stage mechanism initially involving Josephin self-association, followed by a polyQ-dependent step. Despite this recent progress, however, the exact mechanism of ataxin-3 fibrilization remains elusive. Here, we have used electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and other biophysical techniques to characterize the morphological and mechanical properties of nonexpanded ataxin-3 fibrils. By comparing aggregates of ataxin-3 and of the isolated Josephin domain, we show that the two proteins self-assemble into fibrils with markedly similar features over the temperature range 37-50°C. Estimates of persistence length and Young's modulus of the fibrils reveal a great flexibility. Our data indicate that, under physiological conditions, during early aggregation Josephin retains a nativelike secondary structure but loses its enzymatic activity. The results suggest a key role of Josephin in ataxin-3 fibrillar aggregation.

Biolayer Interferometry: Protein-RNA Interactions.

RNA-binding proteins often contain multiple RNA-binding domains connected by short flexible linkers. This domain arrangement allows the protein to bind the RNA with greater affinity and specificity than would be possible with individual domains and sometimes to remodel its structure. It is therefore important to understand how multiple modules interact with RNA because it is the modular nature of these proteins which specifies their biological function. This chapter is concerned with the use of biolayer interferometry to study protein-RNA interactions.

SARS-CoV-2 can recruit a heme metabolite to evade antibody immunity.

The coronaviral spike is the dominant viral antigen and the target of neutralizing antibodies. We show that SARS-CoV-2 spike binds biliverdin and bilirubin, the tetrapyrrole products of heme metabolism, with nanomolar affinity. Using cryo-electron microscopy and x-ray crystallography, we mapped the tetrapyrrole interaction pocket to a deep cleft on the spike N-terminal domain (NTD). At physiological concentrations, biliverdin significantly dampened the reactivity of SARS-CoV-2 spike with immune sera and inhibited a subset of neutralizing antibodies. Access to the tetrapyrrole-sensitive epitope is gated by a flexible loop on the distal face of the NTD. Accompanied by profound conformational changes in the NTD, antibody binding requires relocation of the gating loop, which folds into the cleft vacated by the metabolite. Our results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 spike NTD harbors a dominant epitope, access to which can be controlled by an allosteric mechanism that is regulated through recruitment of a metabolite.

SARS-CoV-2 recruits a haem metabolite to evade antibody immunity.

The coronaviral spike is the dominant viral antigen and the target of neutralizing antibodies. We show that SARS-CoV-2 spike binds biliverdin and bilirubin, the tetrapyrrole products of haem metabolism, with nanomolar affinity. Using cryo-electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography we mapped the tetrapyrrole interaction pocket to a deep cleft on the spike N-terminal domain (NTD). At physiological concentrations, biliverdin significantly dampened the reactivity of SARS-CoV-2 spike with immune sera and inhibited a subset of neutralizing antibodies. Access to the tetrapyrrole-sensitive epitope is gated by a flexible loop on the distal face of the NTD. Accompanied by profound conformational changes in the NTD, antibody binding requires relocation of the gating loop, which folds into the cleft vacated by the metabolite. Our results indicate that the virus co-opts the haem metabolite for the evasion of humoral immunity via allosteric shielding of a sensitive epitope and demonstrate the remarkable structural plasticity of the NTD.

On the mechanism of calcium-dependent activation of NADPH oxidase 5 (NOX5).

It is now accepted that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are not only dangerous oxidative agents but also chemical mediators of the redox cell signaling and innate immune response. A central role in ROS-controlled production is played by the NADPH oxidases (NOXs), a group of seven membrane-bound enzymes (NOX1-5 and DUOX1-2) whose unique function is to produce ROS. Here, we describe the regulation of NOX5, a widespread family member present in cyanobacteria, protists, plants, fungi, and the animal kingdom. We show that the calmodulin-like regulatory EF-domain of NOX5 is partially unfolded and detached from the rest of the protein in the absence of calcium. In the presence of calcium, the C-terminal lobe of the EF-domain acquires an ordered and more compact structure that enables its binding to the enzyme dehydrogenase (DH) domain. Our spectroscopic and mutagenesis studies further identified a set of conserved aspartate residues in the DH domain that are essential for NOX5 activation. Altogether, our work shows that calcium induces an unfolded-to-folded transition of the EF-domain that promotes direct interaction with a conserved regulatory region, resulting in NOX5 activation.

MutSß Stimulates Holliday Junction Resolution by the SMX Complex.

MutSα and MutSß play important roles in DNA mismatch repair and are linked to inheritable cancers and degenerative disorders. Here, we show that MSH2 and MSH3, the two components of MutSß, bind SLX4 protein, a scaffold for the assembly of the SLX1-SLX4-MUS81-EME1-XPF-ERCC1 (SMX) trinuclease complex. SMX promotes the resolution of Holliday junctions (HJs), which are intermediates in homologous recombinational repair. We find that MutSß binds HJs and stimulates their resolution by SLX1-SLX4 or SMX in reactions dependent upon direct interactions between MutSß and SLX4. In contrast, MutSα does not stimulate HJ resolution. MSH3-depleted cells exhibit reduced sister chromatid exchanges and elevated levels of homologous recombination ultrafine bridges (HR-UFBs) at mitosis, consistent with defects in the processing of recombination intermediates. These results demonstrate a role for MutSß in addition to its established role in the pathogenic expansion of CAG/CTG trinucleotide repeats, which is causative of myotonic dystrophy and Huntington's disease.

The structure of the C-terminal KH domains of KSRP reveals a noncanonical motif important for mRNA degradation.

The AU-rich element (ARE) RNA-binding protein KSRP (K-homology splicing regulator protein) contains four KH domains and promotes the degradation of specific mRNAs that encode proteins with functions in cellular proliferation and inflammatory response. The fourth KH domain (KH4) is essential for mRNA recognition and decay but requires the third KH domain (KH3) for its function. We show that KH3 and KH4 behave as independent binding modules and can interact with different regions of the AU-rich RNA targets of KSRP. This provides KSRP with the structural flexibility needed to recognize a set of different targets in the context of their 3'UTR structural settings. Surprisingly, we find that KH4 binds to its target AREs with lower affinity than KH3 and that KSRP's mRNA binding, and mRNA degradation activities are closely associated with a conserved structural element of KH4.

A Ubiquitin-Binding Domain that Binds a Structural Fold Distinct from that of Ubiquitin.

Ubiquitylation, the posttranslational linkage of ubiquitin moieties to lysines in target proteins, helps regulate a myriad of biological processes. Ubiquitin, and sometimes ubiquitin-homology domains, are recognized by ubiquitin-binding domains, including CUE domains. CUE domains are thus generally thought to function by mediating interactions with ubiquitylated proteins. The chromatin remodeler, SMARCAD1, interacts with KAP1, a transcriptional corepressor. The SMARCAD1-KAP1 interaction is direct and involves the first SMARCAD1 CUE domain (CUE1) and the RBCC domain of KAP1. Here, we present a structural model of the KAP1 RBCC-SMARCAD1 CUE1 complex based on X-ray crystallography. Remarkably, CUE1, a canonical CUE domain, recognizes a cluster of exposed hydrophobic and surrounding charged/amphipathic residues on KAP1, which are presented in the context of a coiled-coil domain, not in a structure resembling ubiquitin. Together, these data suggest that CUE domains may have a wider function than simply recognizing ubiquitin and the ubiquitin-fold.

Functional cross-talk between allosteric effects of activating and inhibiting ligands underlies PKM2 regulation.

Several enzymes can simultaneously interact with multiple intracellular metabolites, however, how the allosteric effects of distinct ligands are integrated to coordinately control enzymatic activity remains poorly understood. We addressed this question using, as a model system, the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2). We show that the PKM2 activator fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) alone promotes tetramerisation and increases PKM2 activity, but addition of the inhibitor L-phenylalanine (Phe) prevents maximal activation of FBP-bound PKM2 tetramers. We developed a method, AlloHubMat, that uses eigenvalue decomposition of mutual information derived from molecular dynamics trajectories to identify residues that mediate FBP-induced allostery. Experimental mutagenesis of these residues identified PKM2 variants in which activation by FBP remains intact but cannot be attenuated by Phe. Our findings reveal residues involved in FBP-induced allostery that enable the integration of allosteric input from Phe and provide a paradigm for the coordinate regulation of enzymatic activity by simultaneous allosteric inputs.

Pathogenic and non-pathogenic polyglutamine tracts have similar structural properties: towards a length-dependent toxicity gradient.

Abnormally expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts provide a gain of toxic functions to nine otherwise unrelated human proteins and induce progressive neurodegenerative diseases. Over the past ten years, it was suggested that only polyQ tracts longer than a specific threshold adopt a particular structure, which would be the cause of the apparent polyQ length-dependent toxicity threshold observed in polyQ diseases. We have used a combination of biochemical and biophysical approaches to compare the structural properties of polyQ of pathogenic and non-pathogenic lengths under various conditions. We observe that pathogenic and non-pathogenic polyQ, as soluble species and upon interaction with a partner, during aggregation, or as mature aggregates, display very similar structural properties. PolyQ length only influences the aggregation kinetics and, to a lesser extent, the stability of the aggregates. We thus propose that polyQ toxicity does not depend on a structural transition occurring above a specific threshold, but rather that polyQ tracts are inherently toxic sequences, whose deleterious effect gradually increases with their length. We discuss how polyQ properties and other cellular factors may explain the existence of an apparent polyQ length-dependent toxicity threshold.