Incident pregnancy and mental health among adolescent girls and young women in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: an observational cohort study.

Pregnancy can place adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) at risk of poor mental health. However, evidence linking youth pregnancy to mental health in resource-limited settings is limited, especially where HIV incidence is high. We analysed a population-representative cohort of AGYW aged 13-25 in rural KwaZulu-Natal to assess how adolescent pregnancy predicts subsequent mental health. Among 1851 respondents, incident pregnancy (self-reported past-12-month) rose from 0.7% at age 14 to 22.1% by 18. Probable common mental disorder (CMD; 14-item Shona Symptom Questionnaire) prevalence was 19.1%. In adjusted Poisson regression recent pregnancy was associated with slightly higher probable CMD (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] 1.19, 95%CI 0.96-1.49), and stronger association among 13-15 year-olds (aPR 3.25, 95%CI 1.50-7.03), but not with HIV serostatus. These findings suggest a possible incremental mental health impact of being pregnant earlier than peers, pointing to the need for age-appropriate mental health interventions for AGYW in resource-limited settings.

Can a combination of interventions accelerate outcomes to deliver on the Sustainable Development Goals for young children? Evidence from a longitudinal study in South Africa and Malawi.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to identify possible entry points for interventions that can act as development accelerators for children and adolescents in South Africa and Malawi. METHODS: This study was a secondary data analysis. Data were sourced from the Child Community Care longitudinal study which tracked child well-being outcomes among 989 children (4-13 years) and their caregivers affected by HIV and enrolled in community-based organizations in South Africa and Malawi. We examined associations between five hypothesized accelerating services/household provisions-measured as access at baseline and follow-up and 12 child outcomes that relate to indicators within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) framework. We calculated the adjusted probabilities of experiencing each SDG aligned outcome conditional on receipt of single, combined or all identified accelerators. RESULTS: The results show household food security is associated with positive child education and cognitive development outcomes. Cash grants were positively associated with nutrition and cognitive development outcomes. Living in a safe community was positively associated with all mental health outcomes. Experiencing a combination of two factors was associated with higher probability of positive child outcomes. However, experiencing all three accelerators was associated with better child outcomes, compared with any of the individual factors by themselves with substantial improvements noted in child education outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Combined delivery of specific interventions or services may yield greater improvements in child outcomes across different developmental domains. It is recommended that multiple support avenues in combination like improving food security and safe communities, as well as social protection grants, should be provided for vulnerable children to maximize the impact.

Food Should not be Forgotten: Impacts of Combined Cash Transfer Receipt and Food Security on Child Education and Cognition in South Africa and Malawi.

Social protection can take many forms. Both cash transfers and food security may have important contributions to child cognitive development. This study examines the potential impact of combinations of cash transfers and food security status on child cognitive development and educational outcomes. Cross-sectional data for 796 HIV-affected children in the Child Community Care study were utilised for this analysis. Children and caregivers completed interview schedules comprised of standardised items on socio-demographics, household data, cash grant receipt and food security status, school achievement, and cognition. A series of logistic and linear regression models and marginal effects analyses were undertaken to explore the impacts of differing levels of social protection (none; either cash grant receipt or food secure status or, both in combination) on child educational and cognitive outcomes. Although all children lived in poverty-stricken households, 20% (157/796) of children did not live in a household in receipt of a cash grant and did not report food security; 32.4% (258/796) reported either component of social protection and, 47.9% (381/796) received both measures of social protection in combination. Compared to no social protection, being in receipt of either component of social protection was found to be significantly associated with being in the correct class for age, higher scores of non-verbal cognition, and higher working memory scores. Receiving both social protection measures in combination was found to be significantly associated with reduced educational risk scores, improved odds of being in the correct class for age, regular school attendance, missing less than a week of school in the previous two weeks, higher scores on measures of nonverbal cognition, higher working memory scores, and learning new things more easily. Educational and cognitive outcomes for children can be bolstered by social protection measures (cash grant receipt or food security). Benefits are enhanced when social protection is received in combination. Such findings support the notion of synergistic social protection responses for children living in environments impacted by high levels of HIV burden and deprivation.

The impact of common mental disorders among caregivers living with HIV on child cognitive development in Zimbabwe.

This paper aimed to assess the impact of maternal common mental disorders (CMD) among caregivers living with HIV on the cognitive functioning of their child. Data were collected at baseline and 12 months follow-up from mother-child dyads recruited as part of an ongoing trial in Zimbabwe. Symptoms of CMD were assessed using the Shona Symptom Questionnaire. Mixed-effects linear regression was used to assess child cognitive scores at follow-up (using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning) in relation to caregiver CMD prevalence over 12 months. At baseline, caregivers reporting CMD (n = 230; 40.1%) were less likely to have completed higher education (46.9% vs. 56.9%; p = 0.02), more likely to be unmarried (27.8% vs. 16.0%; p < 0.01), and experience food insecurity (50.0% vs. 29.4%; p < 0.01) compared to the group without CMD (n = 344). There were 4 CMD patterns over time: (i) Emerging CMD (n = 101; 19.7% of caregivers) defined as those who were below the cut-off at baseline, and above it at 12 months; (ii) Improving CMD (n = 76; 14.8%) defined as those who reported CMD at baseline, and were below the cut-off by follow-up; (iii) No CMD (n = 206; 40.1%) defined as those who did not report CMD symptoms at either time point; and (iv) Chronic CMD (n = 131; 25.5%) defined as those who reported CMD above the cut-off at both time points. Children of caregivers with chronic CMD (n = 131, 25.5%) had lower receptive language scores (aMD:-2.81, 95%CI -5.1 to -0.6; p = 0.05) compared to the reference group with no CMD (n = 206, 40.1%). Exposure to caregiver CMD over a prolonged period may affect child receptive vocabulary skills.

Access of non-specialist sexual health services by men who have sex with men: do they differ from those attending specialist services?

OBJECTIVES: Men who have sex with men (MSM) bear a disproportionate burden of STIs. While routine STI surveillance data suggest MSM regularly access specialist genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinics for their sexual healthcare, the extent to which MSM attend non-specialist sexual health services (SHSs) is unclear. METHODS: We used data from the GUM Clinic Activity Data Set (GUMCADv2), the national STI surveillance system, to compare the characteristics, service usage and STI outcomes of MSM accessing specialist and non-specialist (non-GUM) SHSs in England in 2014. Pearson's χ2, Student's t-test and logistic regression analysis were used. RESULTS: Where sexual orientation was recorded (92%), 11% (4552/41 597) of non-GUM attendances were among MSM compared with 28% (280 466/999 331) of GUM attendances (p<0.001). Compared with those attending GUM services, MSM attending non-GUM services were younger (mean age: 30.2 years vs 37.7 years; p<0.001) and were more likely to be of mixed ethnicity (4.9% vs 3.5%; p<0.001), to have had a full sexual health screen (chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis and HIV tests) (48.0% vs 37.0%; p<0.001) and to be diagnosed with chlamydia (7.4% vs 4.1%; p<0.001) and gonorrhoea (8.5% vs 6.5%: p<0.001). MSM attending non-GUM services had slightly lower HIV test uptake (87.0% vs 95.0%; p=0.157) and were less likely to be diagnosed with HIV (0.5% vs 0.8%; p=0.019), compared with those attending GUM clinics. CONCLUSIONS: Non-specialist SHSs play an important role in the care of MSM and should ensure services meet their needs.

Postpartum maternal mental health is associated with cognitive development of HIV-exposed infants in Zimbabwe: a cross-sectional study.

This study examines the cognitive profiles of infants born to HIV positive mothers in Zimbabwe. Caregivers with HIV exposed infants delivered in 30 clinics in two areas of Zimbabwe were recruited to the study. Of the 574 study participants, 562 caregiver-infant dyads with a biological HIV +ve mother and infant aged 0-24 months were interviewed. All infants were tested by a trained administrator for cognitive development on the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL). The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and Parental Stress Index-Short Form were completed by the mothers together with infant and caregiver socioeconomic characteristics. Linear regression models were used to relate cognitive development scores to maternal stress scores, maternal depression scores and infant HIV status adjusting for infant and caregiver characteristics, as well as socioeconomic factors. Higher maternal depression scores were associated with lower overall infant cognitive scores (adjusted mean difference (aMD) = -0.28; CI 95%:-0.50 to -0.06; p = 0.01) and in the expressive language (aMD = -0.14; CI 95%:-0.27 to -0.01; p = 0.04), fine motor skills (aMD = -0.17; CI 95%: -0.33 to -0.01; p = 0.03), gross motor (aMD = -0.22; CI 95%:-0.40 to -0.04; p = 0.02), and visual reception (aMD = -0.22; CI 95%:-0.40 to -0.05; p = 0.01) domains. Higher maternal stress was associated with poorer overall infant cognitive scores (aMD = -0.11; CI 95%:-0.20 to -0.02; p = 0.02) and in the specific domains of expressive language (aMD = -0.07; CI 95%:-0.12 to -0.01; p = 0.01), gross motor skills (aMD = -0.12; CI 95%:-0.18 to -0.05; p < 0.01) and visual reception (aMD = -0.09; CI 95%:-0.16 to -0.02; p = 0.02). Comparisons between the small number of HIV positive infants (n = 16) and the HEU infants (n = 381) showed the latter to have higher mean gross motor scores (50.3 vs. 40.6; p = 0.01). There was no evidence of difference by HIV status in the other MSEL domains or overall mean cognitive scores. Our findings demonstrate the association between maternal mood and stress levels and child cognitive functioning, particularly in expressive language and visual reception development. Although cross sectional data cannot shed light on the direction of this association, the study suggests that interventions to address maternal stress and depression symptoms may prove to be beneficial.

'Tipping the balance' - an evaluation of COVID-19 parenting resources developed and adapted for child protection during global emergency responses.

Background: Parenting was severely affected by lockdown, school closure, illness, movement restrictions and the many sudden changes wrought by the global emergence of COVID-19. Responding to the need for a rapid emergency response to support parents and caregivers, a consortium of providers developed a suite of COVID-19 parenting resources based on evidence-based parenting interventions. Launched in March 2020, these were adapted for online use, with versions in over 100 languages, and the possibility for downloading, radio, and oral provision. A rapid qualitative evaluation initiative was conducted from September 2020 to February 2021 to inform the procedure, understand the impact and to drive future provision. Methods: The evaluation collected openended responses surveys (n = 495 participants) and in-depth interviews with parents, providers, and adolescent children (n = 22) from 14 countries and one global source. Data were gathered on parenting challenges during COVID-19 and the utility of the COVID-19 parenting resources. In-depth, semi-structured interviews explored the same concepts and elaborated on challenges, utility of the resources, and recommendations for the future. Data were coded in a hierarchy from basic, organising and global theme generation.Results: The parenting resources equipped parents with information and practices transforming everyday lives, and interactions. The tips provided prompts and permissions related to children's behaviour, enabled communications, and offered ways to reduce stress, monitor behaviour and navigate discipline challenges. The timeliness of the resources as well as the clarity and ease of use were seen as advantages. Future direction and possible hurdles related to adaptations needed according to recipient, child age, local context, culture, and new challenges. Conclusions: Overall findings point to the value and utility of this unprecedented global response to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Results suggest that rapid provision of parenting resources at scale is feasible and of use and opens a pathway for providing evidence-based interventions under COVID-19 constraints.

The food of life: an evaluation of the impact of cash grant receipt and good parenting on child nutrition outcomes in South Africa and Malawi.

Social protection interventions (inclusive of cash grant receipt and care provision) have been found to be effective in response to some of the negative implications of the HIV epidemic on children and families. This study explores the impact of cash grant receipt and care provision (operationalised as good parenting) on child nutritional outcomes. In this cross-sectional study, 854 children and younger adolescents (5-15 years) and caregivers affected by HIV, attending community-based organisations in South Africa and Malawi, were interviewed. Interviews comprised inventories on socio-demographic information, family data, cash grant receipt and child nutrition. Parenting was measured using a composite scale. Logistic regression and marginal effects analyses were used to explore the associations between differing levels of social protection (none; either cash or good parenting; cash and good parenting) and child nutritional outcomes. One hundred and sixty children (20.3%) received neither cash nor good parenting; 501 (63.5%) received either cash or good parenting and 128 (16.2%) received both cash and good parenting. In comparison to no intervention, receipt of either cash or good parenting was significantly associated with child non-stunting, the child having sufficient food, and the child not looking thin. Three (3/7) nutritional outcomes showed increased improvement amongst children receiving both cash and good parenting care including child-reported non-hunger, child non-stunting and parental report of sufficient food. Marginal effects analyses further identified an additive effect of cash and good parenting on child nutritional outcomes. This study indicates that receipt of combined cash and good parenting, when compared to cash grant receipt alone, has positive effects on nutrition-related child outcomes.

Effects of parenting classes and economic strengthening for caregivers on the cognition of HIV-exposed infants: a pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial in rural Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION: HIV-exposed children show signs of developmental delay. We assessed the impact of a pragmatic multicomponent intervention for caregivers of HIV-exposed children aged 0-2 years in Zimbabwe. METHODS: We conducted a cluster-randomised trial from 2016 to 2018. Clusters were catchments surrounding clinics, allocated (1:1) to either National HIV guidelines standard of care or standard care plus an 18-session group intervention comprising i) early childhood stimulation (ECS) and parenting training with home visits to reinforce skills and retention in HIV care; ii) economic strengthening. Primary outcomes measured 12 months after baseline (4.5 months postintervention completion) included: i) global child development measured using the Mullen early learning composite score; ii) retention in HIV care. Analysis used mixed effects regression to account for clustering and adjusted minimally for baseline prognostic factors and was by intention to treat. RESULTS: Thirty clusters, 15 in each arm, were randomised. 574 dyads were recruited with 89.5% retained at follow-up. Ninety one of 281 (32.4%) were recorded as having received the complete intervention package, with 161/281 (57.3%) attending ≥14 ECS sessions. There was no evidence of an intervention effect on global child development (intervention mean 88.1 vs standard of care mean 87.6; adjusted mean difference=0.06; 95% CI -2.68 to 2.80; p=0.97) or infant retention in care (proportion of children who had missed their most recent HIV test: intervention 21.8% vs standard of care 16.9%, p=0.18). There was weak evidence that the proportion of caregivers with parental stress was reduced in the intervention arm (adjusted OR (aOR)=0.69; 95% CI 0.45 to 1.05; p=0.08) and stronger evidence that parental distress specifically was reduced (intervention arm 17.4% vs standard of care 29.1% scoring above the cut-off; aOR=0.56; 95% CI 0.35 to 0.89; p=0.01). CONCLUSION: This multicomponent intervention had no impact on child development outcomes within 4.5 months of completion, but had an impact on parental distress. Maternal mental health remains a high priority. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: PACTR201701001387209.