Role of P-glycoprotein and the intestine in the excretion of DPC 333 [(2R)-2-{(3R)-3-amino-3-[4-(2-methylquinolin-4-ylmethoxy)phenyl]-2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl}-N-hydroxy-4-methylpentanamide] in rodents.

The role of the intestine in the elimination of (2R)-2-{(3R)-3-amino-3-[4-(2-methylquinolin-4-ylmethoxy)phenyl]-2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl}-N-hydroxy-4-methylpentanamide (DPC 333), a potent inhibitor of tissue necrosis factor alpha-converting enzyme, was investigated in mice and rats in vivo and in vitro. In Madine-Darby canine kidney cells stably transfected with P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and DPC 333, the transport from B-->A reservoirs exceeded the transport from A-->B by approximately 7-fold. In Caco-2 monolayers and isolated rat ileal mucosa, DPC 333 was transported from basolateral to apical reservoirs in a concentration-dependent, saturable manner, and transport was blocked by N-(4-[2-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6,7-dimethoxy-2-isoquinolinyl)ethyl]-phenyl)-9,10-dihydro-5-methoxy-9-oxo-4-acridine carboxamide (GF120918), confirming the contribution of P-gp/breast cancer resistance protein in B-->A efflux of DPC 333. In quantitative whole body autoradiography studies with [(14)C]DPC 333 in mice and rats, radioactivity was distributed throughout the small intestine in both species. In GF120918-pretreated bile duct-cannulated rats, radioactivity in feces was reduced 60%. Using the in situ perfused rat intestine model, approximately 20% of an i.v. dose of [(14)C]DPC 333 was measured in the intestinal lumen within 3 h postdose, 12% as parent. Kinetic analysis of data suggested that excreted DPC 333 may be further metabolized in the gut. Intestinal clearance was 0.2 to 0.35 l/h/kg. The above data suggest that in the rodent the intestine serves as an organ of DPC 333 excretion, mediated in part by the transporter P-gp.

Potent, selective, orally bioavailable inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor-alpha converting enzyme (TACE): discovery of indole, benzofuran, imidazopyridine and pyrazolopyridine P1' substituents.

Potent and selective inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor-alpha converting enzyme (TACE) were discovered with several new heterocyclic P1' groups in conjunction with cyclic beta-amino hydroxamic acid scaffolds. Among them, the pyrazolopyridine provided the best overall profile when combined with tetrahydropyran beta-amino hydroxamic acid scaffold. Specifically, inhibitor 49 showed IC(50) value of 1 nM against porcine TACE and 170 nM in the suppression of LPS-induced TNF-alpha of human whole blood. Compound 49 also displayed excellent selectivity over a wide panel of MMPs as well as excellent oral bioavailability (F%>90%) in rat n-in-1 PK studies.

Potent, exceptionally selective, orally bioavailable inhibitors of TNF-alpha Converting Enzyme (TACE): novel 2-substituted-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)benzamide P1' substituents.

Novel ((2-substituted-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)benzamides were found to be excellent P1' substituents in conjunction with unique constrained beta-amino hydroxamic acid scaffolds for the discovery of potent selective inhibitors of TNF-alpha Converting Enzyme (TACE). Optimized examples proved potent for TACE, exceptionally selective over a wide panel of MMP and ADAM proteases, potent in the suppression of LPS-induced TNF-alpha in human whole blood and orally bioavailable.

Alpha,Beta-cyclic-beta-benzamido hydroxamic acids: Novel oxaspiro[4.4]nonane templates for the discovery of potent, selective, orally bioavailable inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor-alpha converting enzyme (TACE).

Two novel oxaspiro[4.4]nonane beta-benzamido hydroxamic scaffolds have been synthesized in enantio- and diasteriomerically pure form. These templates proved to be exceptional platforms that have led to the discovery of potent inhibitors of TACE that are active in a cellular assay measuring suppression of LPS-induced TNF-alpha. Furthermore, these inhibitors are selective against related MMPs, demonstrate permeability in a Caco-2 assay, and display good oral bioavailability.

Alpha,beta-cyclic-beta-benzamido hydroxamic acids: novel templates for the design, synthesis, and evaluation of selective inhibitors of TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE).

Selective inhibitors of TNF-alpha Converting Enzyme (TACE) based on (1R,2S)-cyclopentyl, (3S,4S)-pyrrolidinyl, and (3R,4S)-tetrahydrofuranyl beta-benzamido hydroxamic acids have been synthesized and evaluated. This study has led to the discovery of novel inhibitors whose profiles include activity against TACE in an enzyme assay, potency in the suppression of LPS-stimulated TNF-alpha in human whole blood, selectivity against a panel of MMPs and oral bioavailability.

Discovery of beta-benzamido hydroxamic acids as potent, selective, and orally bioavailable TACE inhibitors.

Beta-benzamido hydroxamic acids were discovered as potent TACE inhibitors. A computer model was constructed to help understanding the binding activities and guiding SAR study. SAR optimization led to the discovery of compound 30 which met all in vitro and in vivo criteria for the program and was selected for further evaluation.

Sultam hydroxamates as novel matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors.

In this communication we describe the design, synthesis, and evaluation of novel sultam hydroxamates 4 as MMP-2, -9, and -13 inhibitors. Compound 26 was found to be an active inhibitor (MMP-2 IC(50) = 1 nM) with 1000-fold selectivity over MMP-1 and good oral bioavailability (F = 43%) in mouse. An X-ray crystal structure of 26 in MMP-13 confirms the key hydrogen bonds and prime side binding in the active site.

Discovery of gamma-lactam hydroxamic acids as selective inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor alpha converting enzyme: design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationships.

New gamma-lactam TACE inhibitors were designed from known MMP inhibitors. A homology model of TACE was built and examined to identify the S1' site as the key area for TACE selectivity over MMPs. Rational exploration of the P1'-S1' interactions resulted in the discovery of the 3,5-disubstituted benzyl ether as a TACE-selective P1' group. Further optimization led to the discovery of IK682 as a selective and orally bioavailable TACE inhibitor.

Design, synthesis, and evaluation of benzothiadiazepine hydroxamates as selective tumor necrosis factor-alpha converting enzyme inhibitors.

Elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) have been associated with several inflammatory diseases, and therefore, strategies for its suppression have become important targets in drug discovery. Our efforts to suppress TNF-alpha have centered on the inhibition of TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE) through the use of hydroxamate inhibitors. Starting from broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors, we have designed and synthesized novel benzothiadiazepines as potent and selective TACE inhibitors. The benzothiadiazepines were synthesized with variation in P1 and P1' in order to effect potency and selectivity. The inhibitors were evaluated versus porcine TACE (pTACE), and the initial selectivity was assessed with counterscreens of MMP-1, -2, and -9. Several potent and selective inhibitors were discovered with compound 41 being the most active against pTACE (K(i) = 5 nM) while still maintaining good selectivity versus the MMP's (at least 75-fold). Most compounds were assessed in the human peripheral blood mononuclear cell assay (PBMC) and the human whole blood assay (WBA) to determine their ability to suppress TNF-alpha. Compound 32 was the most potent compound in the PBMC assay (IC(50) = 0.35 microM), while compound 62 was the most active in the WBA (IC(50) = 1.4 microM).

N-in-1 dosing pharmacokinetics in drug discovery: experience, theoretical and practical considerations.

N-in-1 (or cassette) dosing pharmacokinetics (PK) has been used in drug discovery for rapid assessment of PK properties of new chemical entities. However, because of potential for drug-drug interactions this procedure is still controversial. This study was to retrospectively evaluate the N-in-1 dosing approach in drug discovery with an emphasis on the potential for drug-drug interactions. The systemic clearance, volume of distribution, oral bioavailability, and renal excretion of the 31 lead compounds in rats, dogs or chimpanzees were significantly correlated between the N-in-1 dosing and discrete studies with r values of 0.69, 0.91, 0.53, and 0.83 (p < 0.005 for all), respectively. PK parameters for 11 quality control compounds which were involved in 194 N-in-1 studies for screening approximately 1000 compounds had coefficient of variations of less than 70%. The intrinsic microsomal clearances generated from the N-in-1 and discrete incubations were nearly identical (r = 0.97, p < 0.0001). The intrinsic clearances of quality control compound from the N-in-1 incubations were consistent with its discrete CL(int) estimate (cv: 5.4%). Therefore, N-in-1 dosing is a useful approach in drug discovery to quickly obtain initial PK estimates. Potential drug-drug interactions that result in confounding PK estimates do not occur as frequently as expected.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of DPC 333 ((2R)-2-((3R)-3-amino-3{4-[2-methyl-4-quinolinyl) methoxy] phenyl}-2-oxopyrrolidinyl)-N-hydroxy-4-methylpentanamide)), a potent and selective inhibitor of tumor necrosis factor alpha-converting enzyme in rodents, dogs, chimpanzees, and humans.

DPC 333 ((2R)-2-((3R)-3-amino-3{4-[2-methyl-4-quinolinyl) methoxy] phenyl}-2-oxopyrrolidinyl)-N-hydroxy-4-methylpentanamide)) is a potent and selective inhibitor of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-converting enzyme (TACE). It significantly inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced soluble TNF-alpha production in blood from rodents, chimpanzee, and human, with IC(50) values ranging from 17 to 100 nM. In rodent models of endotoxemia, DPC 333 inhibited the production of TNF-alpha in a dose-dependent manner, with an oral ED(50) ranging from 1.1 to 6.1 mg/kg. Oral dosing of DPC 333 at 5.5 mg/kg daily for 2 weeks in a rat collagen antibody-induced arthritis model suppressed the maximal response by approximately 50%. DPC 333 was distributed widely to tissues including the synovium, the site of action for antiarthritic drugs. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies in chimpanzee revealed a systemic clearance of 0.4 l/h/kg, a V(ss) of 0.6 l/kg, an oral bioavailability of 17%, and an ex vivo IC(50) for the suppression of TNF-alpha production of 55 nM (n = 1). In a phase I clinical trial with male volunteers after single escalating doses of oral DPC 333, the terminal half-life was between 3 and 6 h and the ex vivo IC(50) for suppressing TNF-alpha production was 113 nM. Measurement of the suppression of TNF-alpha production ex vivo may serve as a good biomarker in evaluating the therapeutic efficacy of TACE inhibitors. Overall, the pharmacological profiles of DPC 333 support the notion that suppression of TNF-alpha with TACE inhibitors like DPC 333 may provide a novel approach in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, via control of excessive TNF-alpha production.

A new 4-(2-methylquinolin-4-ylmethyl)phenyl P1' group for the beta-amino hydroxamic acid derived TACE inhibitors.

A new P1' group for TACE inhibitors was identified by eliminating the oxygen atom in the linker of the original 4-(2-methylquinolin-4-ylmethoxy)phenyl P1' group. Incorporation of this 4-(2-methylquinolin-4-ylmethyl)phenyl group onto different beta-aminohydroxamic acid cores provided compound 18, which demonstrated potent porcine TACE (p-TACE) and human whole blood activity, excellent PK properties, and good selectivity against a variety of MMPs.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of a novel, achiral series of TNF-alpha converting enzyme inhibitors.

A novel series of achiral TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE) inhibitors has been discovered. These compounds exhibited activities from 0.35 to 11nM in a porcine TACE assay and inhibited TNF-alpha production in an LPS-stimulated whole blood assay with an IC(50) value of 23nM for the most potent one. They also have excellent selectivities over related metalloproteases including aggrecanases.

Development of a dog microdialysis model for determining synovial fluid pharmacokinetics of anti-arthritis compounds exemplified by methotrexate.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate an animal model of drug disposition in synovial fluid (SF) by comparing microdialysis with arthrocentesis using the anti-arthritic drug methotrexate (MTX). METHODS: Microdialysis probes were calibrated in vitro with the no net flux method using dog synovial fluid. The probes were implanted surgically into the stifle joint space of four dogs and were dialyzed overnight using a portable microinfusion pump. The membrane integrity of the probes was monitored by retrodialysis using an internal standard. After an intravenous bolus of 2.5 mg/kg of MTX, unbound concentrations in synovial fluid, as well as total plasma concentrations, were measured by liquid chromatography tandam mass spectrometer (LC/MS/MS) in samples collected from 0 to 48 h postdose. RESULTS: The probe membrane remained intact at least 48 h after implantation. The mean probe recovery and unbound fraction of MTX in SF were 46.8% and 44.8%, respectively. The unbound fraction of MTX was 44% in synovial fluid. MTX penetrated into the joint space rapidly, with maximal concentrations of 6.6 microM reached at approximately 1 h postdose. The unbound MTX area under the curve in SF was approximately 40% of the total area under the curve in plasma. These data agree well with the previous data obtained for MTX using arthrocentesis. CONCLUSION: In contrast with arthrocentesis, microdialysis enables the collection of multiple serial SF samples from individual animals with minimal trauma and potential blood contamination. This animal model should prove valuable for studying the disposition of new antiarthritis compounds or biomarkers in SF.

The chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) as a pharmacokinetic model for selection of drug candidates: model characterization and application.

The chimpanzee (CHP) was evaluated as a pharmacokinetic model for humans (HUMs) using propranolol, verapamil, theophylline, and 12 proprietary compounds. Species differences were observed in the systemic clearance of theophylline (approximately 5-fold higher in CHPs), a low clearance compound, and the bioavailability of propranolol and verapamil (lower in CHPs), both high clearance compounds. The systemic clearance of propranolol (approximately 1.53 l/h/kg) suggested that the hepatic blood flow in CHPs is comparable to that in humans. No substantial differences were observed in the in vitro protein binding. A preliminary attempt was made to characterize cytochrome P450 (P450) activities in CHP and HUM liver microsomes. Testosterone 6beta-hydroxylation and tolbutamide methylhydroxylation activities were comparable in CHP and HUM liver microsomes. In contrast, dextromethorphan O-demethylation and phenacetin O-deethylation activities were approximately 10-fold higher (per mg protein) in CHP liver microsomes. Intrinsic clearance estimates in CHP liver microsomes were higher for propranolol (approximately 10-fold) and theophylline (approximately 5-fold) and similar for verapamil. Of the 12 proprietary compounds, 3 had oral clearances that differed in the two species by more than 3-fold, an acceptable range for biological variability. Most of the observed differences are consistent with species differences in P450 enzyme activity. Oral clearances of proprietary compounds in HUMs were significantly correlated to those from CHPs (r = 0.68; p = 0.015), but not to estimates from rat, dog, and monkey. In summary, the chimpanzee serves as a valuable surrogate model for human pharmacokinetics, especially when species differences in P450 enzyme activity are considered.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of a novel sulfone series of TNF-alpha converting enzyme inhibitors.

Replacement of the amide functionality in IM491 (N-hydroxy-(5S,6S)-1-methyl-6-[[4-(2-methyl-4-quinolinylmethoxy)anilinyl]carbonyl]5-piperidinecarboxamide) with a sulfonyl group led to a new series of alpha,beta-cyclic and beta,beta-cyclic gamma-sulfonyl hydroxamic acids, which were potent TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE) inhibitors. Among them, inhibitor 4b (N-hydroxy-(4S,5S)-1-methyl-5-[[4-(2-methyl-4-quinolinylmethoxy)phenyl]sulfonylmethyl]-4-pyrrolidinecarboxamide) exhibited IC50 values of < 1 nM and 180 nM in porcine TACE (pTACE) and cell assays, respectively, with excellent selectivity over MMP-1, -2, -9 and -13 and was orally bioavailable with an F value of 46% in mice.

Rational design, synthesis and structure-activity relationships of a cyclic succinate series of TNF-alpha converting enzyme inhibitors. Part 2: lead optimization.

Modifications of the lead TACE inhibitor 1 (N-hydroxy-trans-2-[[4-(4-quinolinyloxymethyl)anilinyl]carbonyl]-1-cyclohexanecarboxamide) at the cyclohexyl ring and the quinoline moiety led to the identification of a series of piperidine containing TACE inhibitors with potent activity in the inhibition of TNF-alpha release in the whole blood assay (WBA). The most potent analogue IM491 [N-hydroxy-(5S,6S)-1-methyl-6-[[4-(2-methyl-4-quinolinylmethoxy)anilinyl]carbonyl]-5-piperidinecarboxamide] exhibited an IC(50) value of 20 nM in WBA with excellent selectivity over MMP-1, -2 and -9 and is orally bioavailable with an F value of 43% in beagle dogs.

Potent and selective aggrecanase inhibitors containing cyclic P1 substituents.

Anti-succinate hydroxamates with cyclic P1 motifs were synthesized as aggrecanase inhibitors. The N-methanesulfonyl piperidine 23 and the N-trifluoroacetyl azetidine 26 were the most potent aggrecanase inhibitors both having an IC(50)=3nM while maintaining >100-fold selectivity over MMP-1, -2, and -9. The cyclic moieties were also capable of altering in vivo metabolism, hence delivering low clearance compounds in both rat and dog studies as shown for compound 14.