Factors regulating the differences in frequency of infiltration of Th17 and Treg of the blood-brain barrier.

Controlling CD4+ immune cell infiltration of the brain is a leading aim in designing therapeutic strategies for a range of neuropathological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and depression. CD4+ T cells are a highly heterogeneous and reprogrammable family, which includes various distinctive cell types such as Th17, Th1, and Treg cells. Interestingly Th17 and Treg cells share a related transcriptomic profile, where the TGFß-SMADS pathway plays a fundamental role in regulating the differentiation of both of these cell types. However, Th17 could be highly pathogenic and was shown to promote inflammation in various neuropathological disorders. Conversely, Treg is anti-inflammatory and is known to inhibit Th17. It could be noticed that Th17 frequencies of infiltration of the blood-brain barrier in various neurological disorders are significantly upregulated. However, Treg infiltration numbers are significantly low. The reasons behind these contradicting observations are still unknown. In this perspective, we propose that the difference in the T-cell receptor repertoire diversity, diapedesis pathways, chemokine expression, and mechanical properties of these two cell types could be contributing to answering this intriguing question.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside as a Nutrigenomic Factor in Type 2 Diabetes and Its Prominent Impact on Health.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) accounts for a global health problem. It is a complex disease as a result of the combination of environmental as well as genetic factors. Morbidity is still increasing across the world. One of the possibilities for the prevention and mitigation of the negative consequences of type 2 diabetes is a nutritional diet rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols. This review is focused on cyanidin-3-O-glucosidase (C3G), which belongs to the anthocyanins subclass, and its anti-diabetic properties. There are numerous pieces of evidence that C3G exerts positive effects on diabetic parameters, including in vitro and in vivo studies. It is involved in alleviating inflammation, reducing blood glucose, controlling postprandial hyperglycemia, and gene expression related to the development of T2D. C3G is one of the beneficial polyphenolic compounds that may help to overcome the public health problems associated with T2D.

Effect of Dried Apple Pomace (DAP) as a Feed Additive on Antioxidant System in the Rumen Fluid.

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of dried apple pomace (DAP) as a feed additive on the enzymatic activity and non-enzymatic compounds belonging to the antioxidant system in cattle rumen fluid. The experiment included 4 Polish Holstein−Friesian cannulated dairy cows and lasted 52 days. The control group was fed with the standard diet, while in the experimental group, 6% of the feedstuff was replaced by dried apple pomace. After the feeding period, ruminal fluid was collected. The spectrophotometric technique for the activity of lysosomal enzymes, the content of vitamin C, polyphenols, and the potential to scavenge the free DPPH radical was used. The enzyme immunoassay tests (ELISA) were used to establish the activity of antioxidants enzymes and MDA. Among the rumen aminopeptidases, a significant reduction (p < 0.01) from 164.00 to 142.00 was observed for leucyl-aminopeptidase. The activity of glycosidases was decreased for HEX (from 231.00 to 194.00) and ß-Glu (from 1294.00 to 1136.00), while a significant statistically increase was noticed for BGRD (from 31.10 to 42.40), α-Glu (from 245.00 to 327.00), and MAN (from 29.70 to 36.70). Furthermore, the activity of catalase and GSH (p < 0.01) was inhibited. In turn, the level of vitamin C (from 22.90 to 24.10) and MDA (from 0.36 to 0.45) was statistically higher (p < 0.01). The most positive correlations were observed between AlaAP and LeuAP (r = 0.897) in the aminopeptidases group and between ß-Gal and MAN (r = 0.880) in the glycosidases group. Furthermore, one of the most significant correlations were perceived between SOD and AlaAP (r = 0.505) and AcP (r = 0.450). The most negative correlation was noticed between α-Gal and DPPH (r = −0.533) based on these observations. Apple pomace as a feed additive has an influence on lysosomal degradation processes and modifies oxidation−reduction potential in the rumen fluid. Polyphenols and other low-weight antioxidant compounds are sufficient to maintain redox balance in the rumen.

The Effect of Different Levels of Cu, Zn and Mn Nanoparticles in Hen Turkey Diet on the Activity of Aminopeptidases.

The aim of the study was to estimate the influence of the different levels of Cu, Zn, and Mn nanoparticles on the activity of aminopeptidases in turkey. An experiment was carried out on 144 turkey hen Hybrid Converter. The birds were divided into groups given standard- and nanoparticle-supplementation of different level of copper (Cu 20, 10, 2 mg/kg), zinc (Zn 100, 50, 10 ppm), and manganese (Mn 100, 50, 10 ppm), covering respectively 100%, 50%, and 10% of the physiological demands for those minerals in the diet. The activity of aminopeptidases (alanyl: AlaAP, leucyl: LeuAP and arginyl: ArgAP) after supplementation of minerals was determined in the breast and thigh turkey muscle. The strongest effect of interaction among minerals supplementation form and dose on the activity levels of the aminopeptidases in thigh muscle was observed for nano-Cu already at the lowest dose of 2 mg/kg. In this dose (covering 10% of the birds' demand) nano form of supplementation significantly increased the activity of Ala-, Leu-, and ArgAP (877, 201, and 719, respectively), compared to standard form of supplementation (461, 90.5, and 576, respectively). In turn, in breast muscle, after supplementation covering 10% of the demand with the nano-Cu, nano-Zn, and nano-Mn compared to the standard form, we did not observe any significant difference in the activity levels of any of the investigated aminopeptidases, except for AlaAP under Zn supplementation. Supplementation with the 20 mg/kg of Nano-Cu (100% of demand) and with 10 mg/kg of Nano-Cu (50% of demand) inhibited the activity of all of the three aminopeptidases in thigh muscle. Supplementation of the minerals in nano form into the diet, especially of Cu and Zn in the dose covering 10% of the demand is relevant to maintain homeostasis in turkey muscles, as indicated by the activity of the aminopeptidases.

Nutrients Composition in Fit Snacks Made from Ostrich, Beef and Chicken Dried Meat.

The aim of the study was to compare three types of meat snacks made from ostrich, beef, and chicken meat in relation to their nutrients content including fat, fatty acids, heme iron, and peptides, like anserine and carnosine, from which human health may potentially benefit. Dry meat samples were produced, from one type of muscle, obtained from ostrich (m.ambiens), beef (m. semimembranosus), and broiler chicken meat (m. pectoralis major). The composition of dried ostrich, beef, and chicken meat, with and without spices was compared. We show that meat snacks made from ostrich, beef, and chicken meat were characterized by high concentration of nutrients including proteins, minerals (heme iron especially in ostrich, than in beef), biologically active peptides (carnosine-in beef, anserine-in ostrich then in chicken meat). The, beneficial to human health, n-3 fatty acids levels differed significantly between species. Moreover, ostrich jerky contained four times less fat as compared to beef and half of that in chicken. In conclusion we can say that dried ostrich, beef, and chicken meat could be a good source of nutritional components.

Influence of small ruminant lentivirus infection on cheese yield in goats.

Three-year cohort study was carried out to investigate the influence of small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) infection on cheese yield in goats. For this purpose records of milk yield, milk composition and cheese yield were collected in a dairy goat herd. Cheese yield was recorded as the amount of fresh cheese obtained from 1 kg milk. All goats were serologically tested for SRLV infection twice a year. The analysis included 247 records in total (71 for seropositive and 176 from seronegative individuals) and was carried out with the use of the four-level hierarchical linear model (α = 0·05). SRLV infection proved to be a statistically significant independent factor reducing cheese yield (P = 0·013)--when other covariates were held constant cheese yield was reduced by 4·6 g per each 1 kg milk in an infected goat compared with an uninfected goat. Other statistically significant covariates positively associated with cheese yield were protein contents, fat contents and the 3rd stage of lactation (P < 0·001 for all).

Effects of replacing extracted soybean meal with rapeseed cake in corn grass silage-based diet for dairy cows.

The aim of the study was to assess the effects of partial replacement of soybean meal with a protein-equivalent amount of rapeseed cake in the diet on milking parameters and fatty acid (FA) composition of milk in dairy cows. Two groups of Holstein-Friesian cows, 8 each, consisting of randomised blocks were studied: a control group (C) was given a traditional high-protein supplement (extracted soybean meal) and the experimental group (E), had part of extracted soybean meal replaced with rapeseed cake. Dry matter intake and milk yield in both groups were not affected by the diet but milk fat percentage and yield were decreased in both groups. Rapeseed cake had no effect on milk acidity or on protein (including casein) and lactose contents. A lower concentration of urea in milk in E group indicated a proper ratio of protein to energy in the fodder. Health condition of mammary gland and indicators of metabolic profile were not affected by rapeseed cake supplementation. In E group, the share of atherogenic saturated fatty acids (FA) was reduced after 11 weeks: palmitic, by 26% and myristic, by 22%; moreover, as compared with control cows, the content of monounsaturated FA in milk increased by 44% after 3 weeks and by 68% after 11 weeks, t-18:1 and c-9 t-11 isomer of CLA increased about 2.5-fold after 11 weeks. In E group, the atherogenic index (AI) was significantly (P < 0.001) lower than in C (by 54% on average) and the decrease with time was considerable (by 29%, P < 0.001). Contents of odd- and branched- chain FA in milk were not significantly affected thus reflecting proper rumen function. Partial replacement of soybean meal with rapeseed cake in the diet of cows may improve both milking indices and FA profile of milk.

Influence of stage of lactation and year season on composition of mares' colostrum and milk and method and time of storage on vitamin C content in mares' milk.

BACKGROUND: Mares' milk is becoming increasingly popular in Western Europe. This study was thus aimed at investigating the impact of stage of lactation and season on chemical composition, somatic cell count and some physicochemical parameters of mares' colostrum and milk, and at developing a method for the determination of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in mares' milk and to determine its content in fresh and stored milk. RESULTS: The analysis conducted showed an effect of the stage of lactation on contents of selected chemical components and physicochemical parameters of mares' milk. In successive lactation periods levels of fat, cholesterol, energy value, citric acid and titratable acidity decreased, whereas levels of lactose and vitamin C, as well as the freezing point, increased. Analysis showed that milk produced in autumn (September, October, November) had a higher freezing point and lower concentrations of total solids, protein, fat, cholesterol, citric acid and energy value in comparison to milk produced in summer (June, July, August). Mares' milk was characterised by low somatic cell count throughout lactation. In terms of vitamin C stability the most advantageous method of milk storage was 6-month storage of lyophilised milk. CONCLUSION: In general, the results confirmed that mares' milk is a raw material with a unique chemical composition different from that produced by other farm animals.

Cathelicidins: family of antimicrobial peptides. A review.

Cathelicidins are small, cationic, antimicrobial peptides found in humans and other species, including farm animals (cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens, rabbits and in some species of fish). These proteolytically activated peptides are part of the innate immune system of many vertebrates. These peptides show a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against bacteria, enveloped viruses and fungi. Apart from exerting direct antimicrobial effects, cathelicidins can also trigger specific defense responses in the host. Their roles in various pathophysiological conditions have been studied in mice and humans, but there are limited information about their expression sites and activities in livestock. The aim of the present review is to summarize current information about these antimicrobial peptides in farm animals, highlighting peptide expression sites, activities, and future applications for human and veterinary medicine.

Association of polymorphisms in exons 2 and 10 of the insulin-like growth factor 2 ( IGF2) gene with milk production traits in Polish Holstein-Friesian cattle.

Insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) is considered to be a regulator of post-natal growth and differentiation of the mammary gland. In the present work, associations of two single nucleotide polymorphisms in the bovine IGF2 gene with milk production traits were studied in dairy Holstein-Friesian cows: the already described g.8656C>T transition in exon 2 (RFLP-BsrI) and the newly found g.24507G>T transversion in exon 10 (RFLP-HaeIII), found by sequencing 273-bp exon 10 of the IGF2 gene in six individuals. Associations were analysed individually and in combination with the multi-trait repeatability test-day animal model. The CT/GT haplotype appeared to be associated with most of the milk traits studied (differences were significant at P < or = 0.001). The most frequent CT/GG haplotype seemed inferior to others in fat and protein content and daily yield of fat and protein but superior (together with the TT/GG genotype) when the daily milk yield is considered.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) Seeds Dietary Supplementation Regulates Liver Antioxidant Defense Systems in Aging Mice.

Fenugreek seeds are widely used in Asia and other places of the world for their nutritive and medicinal properties. In Asia, fenugreek seeds are also recommended for geriatric populations. Here, we evaluated for the first time the effect of fenugreek seed feed supplementation on the liver antioxidant defense systems in aging mice. The study was conducted on 12-months aged mice which were given fenugreek seed dietary supplement. We evaluated the activities of various antioxidant defense enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and also estimated the phenolics and free radical scavenging properties in mice liver upon fenugreek supplementation. The estimation of SOD, GPx, and GR activities in aged mice liver revealed a significant (p < 0.01) difference among all the liver enzymes. Overall, this study reveals that fenugreek seed dietary supplementation has a positive effect on the activities of the hepatic antioxidant defense enzymes in the aged mice.

Associations between Mammary Gland Echotexture and Milk Composition in Cows.

Thirty clinically healthy Holstein-Friesian cows underwent twice daily machine milking and ultrasonographic examinations of the udder just prior to and after milking. Digital ultrasonographic images of each udder quarter were subjected to computer-assisted echotextural analyses to obtain mean numerical pixel values (NPVs) and pixel heterogeneity (PSD) of the mammary gland parenchyma. The average milk yield and pH were higher (p < 0.05) in the morning, whereas crude fat, total solids, solids non-fat and citric acid content were higher (p < 0.05) during the evening milking period. Mean NPVs and PSDs of the mammary gland parenchyma were greater (p < 0.05) after than before milking. There were significant correlations among echotextural characteristics of the udder and protein percentage, lactose content and freezing point depression determined in the milk samples collected in the morning and crude protein, casein, lactose and solids non-fat in the evening. Our results can be interpreted to suggest that computerized analysis of the mammary gland ultrasonograms has the makings of a technique for estimating non-fat milk constituents in cows. However, future validating studies are necessary before this method can be employed in commercial settings and research. Moreover, significant inter-quarter differences in udder echogenicity may necessitate further echotextural studies of separate quarters.

Biochemical and morphological changes in mouse liver induced by mistletoe toxins.

Natural compounds are often characterized by high biological activity and sometimes toxicity. This also applies to compounds contained in the herb mistletoe. The objective of this study was to investigate short-term effects (up to 48 h) of mistletoe toxins on mouse hepatocytes. Standardized mistletoe extract Iscador P was given to female mice as a single injection (0.1 mg/kg b.w., 1 mg/kg b.w., or 2 mg/kg b.w). Activities of lysosomal hydrolases: acid phosphatase, cathepsins D and L, N-acetyl-ß-D-hexosaminidase, ß-D-glucuronidase, ß-D-glucosidase and cytosolic proteases: arginine and leucine aminopeptidases were analyzed in the liver fractions 24 and 48 h after the injection. The morphology of hepatocytes was examined by light and transmission electron microscopy. Iscador P caused a decrease in the activity of all lysosomal hydrolases (except cathepsins) in the lysosomal pellet, and an increase in the activity of both aminopeptidases and ß-D-glucuronidase in the cytosol. However, despite membranotropic properties of the viscotoxins, we did not find a significant labilising effect on the lysosomal membranes. Only ß-D-glucuronidase activity was relocated to the supernatant of lysosomal fraction. Microscopic examinations revealed that hepatocyte mitochondria were enlarged and increased in number, whereas the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum was decreased significantly.

Phytol: A review of biomedical activities.

Phytol (PYT) is a diterpene member of the long-chain unsaturated acyclic alcohols. PYT and some of its derivatives, including phytanic acid (PA), exert a wide range of biological effects. PYT is a valuable essential oil (EO) used as a fragrance and a potential candidate for a broad range of applications in the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industry. There is ample evidence that PA may play a crucial role in the development of pathophysiological states. Focusing on PYT and some of its most relevant derivatives, here we present a systematic review of reported biological activities, along with their underlying mechanism of action. Recent investigations with PYT demonstrated anxiolytic, metabolism-modulating, cytotoxic, antioxidant, autophagy- and apoptosis-inducing, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulating, and antimicrobial effects. PPARs- and NF-κB-mediated activities are also discussed as mechanisms responsible for some of the bioactivities of PYT. The overall goal of this review is to discuss recent findings pertaining to PYT biological activities and its possible applications.

Morphological, densitometric and mechanical properties of pelvic limb bones in 14-month-old female ostriches (Struthio camelus).

Limited information on physiological characteristic of bones in ostrich skeleton are available, even though bone weaknesses in ostriches are commonplace. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate morphological, densitometric, and mechanical properties of pelvic limb long bones (femur, tibia, and tarsometatarsus) in 14-month-old female ostriches (Struthio camelus var. domesticus). After the slaughter procedure, all bones were isolated, cleaned of soft tissues, and bone weight and length were determined. Using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) were determined. Volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD) and geometrical parameters of the bones were determined using the quantitative computed tomography (QCT) method. Maximum elastic strength and ultimate strength of the bones were determined using three-point bending test. Significant differences were revealed between morphological, densitometric, and mechanical properties of femur, tibia, and tarsometatarsus in female ostriches at the slaughter age of 14 months. Elaborated experimental model and determination of morphological, densitometric, and mechanical properties of femur, tibia, and tarsometatarsus in female ostriches may serve for further studies on metabolic regulation of skeletal system properties with environmental, physiological, dietary, pharmacological, and toxicological factors.

Defensins: natural component of human innate immunity.

The widespread use of antibiotics has contributed to a huge increase in the number of resistant bacteria. New classes of drugs are therefore being developed of which defensins are a potential source. Defensins are a group of antimicrobial peptides found in different living organisms, involved in the first line of defense in their innate immune response against pathogens. This review summarizes the results of studies of this family of human antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). There is a special emphasis on describing the entire group and individual peptides, history of their discovery, their functions and expression sites. The results of the recent studies on the use of the biologically active peptides in human medicine are also presented. The pharmaceutical potential of human defensins cannot be ignored, especially considering their strong antimicrobial activity and properties such as low molecular weight, reduced immunogenicity, broad activity spectrum and resistance to proteolysis, but there are still many challenges and questions regarding the possibilities of their practical application.

Expression and polymorphism of defensins in farm animals.

Due to their activity against bacteria, viruses, and fungi, antimicrobial peptides are important factors in the innate resistance system of humans and animals. They are called "new generation antibiotics" for their potential use in preventive and therapeutic medicine. The most numerous group of antimicrobial peptides is a family of cationic peptides which include defensins and cathelicidins. Among them the most common are peptides with a beta-sheet structure containing three intra-molecular disulphide bonds, called defensins, comprising three classes: alpha, beta, and theta. The class of beta-defensins is the largest one. Their transcripts have been found in many tissues of humans and animals. The aim of this paper is to present the current knowledge about antimicrobial peptides from the defensin family in farm animals, their expression, polymorphism, as well as the potential of their use as genetic markers of health and production traits.