Concomitant Use of Cotrimoxazole and Atazanavir in HIV-infected Patients: A Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Pharmacovigilance Based Dual Approach.

BACKGROUND: Cotrimoxazole is the main antibiotic used in primary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in advanced HIV infection. This drug can inhibit one of the metabolic pathways of atazanavir (ATV), such as the cytochromes P450 (CYP) 2C8/2C9 and could interfere with its safety and efficacy. OBJECTIVE: We studied the drug-drug interaction (DDI) between cotrimoxazole and ATV by using therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) and pharmacovigilance (PV) approaches. METHODS: We compared a group of patients treated with cotrimoxazole and receiving an ATV-based regimen to controls. This historical cohort analysis used data from Dat'AIDS in HIV-infected patients who had at least two lowest plasma concentrations (C-trough) of ATV during their outpatient follow-up. Likewise, we used the international pharmacovigilance data from VigiBase to evaluate the notifications of hyperbilirubinemia reported with ATV. RESULTS: In the TDM analysis, the two groups of patients (treated with cotrimoxazole and controls) were almost homogeneous concerning the main baseline features. After at least six months of ATVbased regimen, there was no significant difference in the safety threshold of the ATV C-trough [with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 1.4 (95% CI: 0.5 - 4.4)] compared to controls. We observed similar results with the efficacy thresholds of ATV C-trough. Regarding the PV analysis, there was no difference in hyperbilirubinemia occurring with ATV when cotrimoxazole was concomitant, with an adjusted reporting odds ratio (aROR) of 0.9 (95% CI: 0.6 to 1.2). CONCLUSION: This study showed a relevant concomitant use between Cotrimoxazole and ATV based on TDM and PV approaches.

Cytotoxicity and in vitro susceptibility of Entamoeba histolytica to Morinda morindoides leaf extracts and its isolated constituents.

An aqueous decotion (dried extract), an 80% MeOH extract from Morinda morindoides leaves, and 10 flavonoids and 4 iridoids isolated from the 80% MeOH extract were evaluated in vitro for their potential antiamoebic activity and their cytotoxic effect against MT-4 cells. Results indicated that the aqueous decoction and the 80% MeOH extract exhibited an interesting antiamoebic activity with IC(50) values of 3.1 +/- 1.7 and 1.7 +/- 0.6 microg/ml, respectively. Apigenin-7-O-glucoside and luteolin-7-O-glucoside exhibited a moderate antiamoebic activity with IC(50) values of 22.3 +/- 3.2 and 37.4 +/- 2.7 microg/ml, respectively. Kaempferol (IC(50) = 10.3 +/- 2.3 microg/ml), apigenin (IC(50) = 12.7 +/- 4.3 microg/ml), and luteolin (IC(50) = 17.8 +/- 4.3 microg/ml) showed a more pronounced activity than their corresponding glycosides. All tested iridoids displayed a very good activity with IC(50) values less than 10 microg/ml. The most active iridoids were epoxygaertneroside (IC(50) = 1.3 +/- 0.4 microg/ml) and methoxygaertneroside (IC(50) = 2.3. +/- 0.7), followed by gaertneroside and gaertneric acid with IC(50) values of 4.3 +/- 1.8 and 7.1 +/- 1.4 microg/ml, respectively. Except quercetin and quercetin-7,4'-dimethylether which have shown a cytotoxic effect with IC(50) ranging from 14 to 22 microg/ml. No correlation could be deduced between the observed antiamoebic and cytotoxic activity of these tested samples. A structure-activity relationship for isolated compounds is discussed. These findings support the medicinal report for the traditional use of Morinda morindoides leaves for the treatment of amoebiasis.

Depressant effects of chloroquine on the isolated guinea-pig heart.

Some anti-malarials have deleterious effects upon the heart. The actions of two of these, chloroquine and quinacrine, were compared on isolated guinea-pig atria and Langendorff preparations to assess their effects on several calcium pools. Both compounds decreased developed tension in a concentration (chloroquine 10-100 microM; quinacrine 3-100 microM) and time-dependent manner, with quinacrine being twice as potent as potent as chloroquine. Ventricular muscle was much more sensitive to chloroquine than was atrial muscle. Concentrations of chloroquine, comparable to that found in the serum of patients ingesting toxic doses, caused significant inhibition of developed tension. The effects of chloroquine were almost completely reversed on washout; quinacrine, however, was less readily reversible. Chloroquine also had a direct negative chronotropic effect, substantially reduced force-frequency relationships and developed tension in partially depolarized atrial preparations; while post-rest contraction and the positive inotropic effect of ouabain were unaffected. Increases in extracellular calcium antagonized the negative inotropic effect. Quinacrine had a marked effect on post-rest contraction and attenuated the positive inotropic action of ouabain. It is concluded that the action of chloroquine may involve a superficial calcium pool, while quinacrine may act upon several calcium pools.

Radical scavenging and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity of phenolic compounds from Bridelia ferruginea stem bark.

Bridelia ferruginea Benth. (Euphorbiaceae) is a subtropical medicinal plant widely used in traditional African medicine against various diseases, including rheumatic pains. Seven of its constituents (3-O-methylquercetin (1), 3,7,3',4'-tetra-O-methylquercetin (rutisin, 2), myricetin (3), 3',4',5'-tri-O-methylmyricetin (ferrugin, 4), 3,3',4',5'-tetra-O-methylmyricetin (5), quercetin 3-O-glucoside (6), and a biflavanol gallocatechin-[4'-O-7]-epigallocatechin (7)) have been evaluated in-vitro in the xanthine-xanthine oxidase enzymatic system for inhibition of xanthine oxidase and radical scavenging activity. Results indicated that compounds 1, 3, 4 and 6 exhibited, at different levels, xanthine oxidase inhibiting and superoxide scavenging activity at micromolar concentrations, whereas compound 7 showed scavenging activity only. Compounds 2 and 5 were inactive in both cases. Study of the structure-activity relationship demonstrated that for flavonoids the xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity was reduced by methylation of the hydroxyl functionality at C-3 and in rings A and B. These results may partly explain and support the use of B. ferruginea stem bark for the treatment of rheumatic pains in traditional medicine.

Antiamoebic and phytochemical screening of some Congolese medicinal plants.

Results from the in vitro antiamoebic activity of some Congolese plant extracts used as antidiarrhoeic in traditional medicine indicated that of 45 plant extracts tested, 35 (77.78%) exhibited an antiamoebic activity and 10 (22.22%) were inactive. The highest activity (MIC < 100 microg/ml) was obtained with extracts from root bark of Paropsia brazzeana, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Alchornea cordifolia, Hensia pulchella, Maprounea africana, Rauwolfia obscura and Voacanga africana, leaves and stem bark of Psidium guajava, stem bark of Dialum englerianum, Harungana madagascariensis and Mangifera indica, mature seeds of Carica papaya, and leaves of Morinda morindoides and Tithonia diversifolia. Metronidazole used as reference product showed a more pronounced activity than that of all plant extracts tested.

Antimalarial activity of 20 crude extracts from nine African medicinal plants used in Kinshasa, Congo.

Twenty extracts including ten EtOH and ten CH2Cl2 from different parts of nine African medicinal plants used in Congolese traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria, were submitted to a pharmacological test in order to evaluate their effect on P. falciparum growth in vitro. Of these plant species, 14 (70%) extracts including EtOH and CH2Cl2 from Cassia occidentalis leaves, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta root bark, Euphorbia hirta whole plant, Garcinia kola stem bark and seeds, Morinda lucida leaves and Phyllanthus niruri whole plant produced more than 60% inhibition of the parasite growth in vitro at a test concentration of 6 microg/ml. Extracts from E. hirta, C. sanguinolenta and M. morindoides showed a significant chemosuppression of parasitaemia in mice infected with P. berghei berghei at orally given doses of 100-400 mg/kg per day.

Correlation between chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

The chemical composition of essential oils from 15 aromatic medicinal plant species growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo have been studied. More than 15 constituents in an amount higher than 0.1% were identified in each essential oil. 1,8-cineole, alpha and beta-pinene, p-cymene, myrcene, gamma-terpinene, alpha-terpineol and limonene were prevalent constituents in almost more than 10 selected plant species. Results from the antibacterial testing by the diffusion method indicate that all essential oils (5 microl per disc) inhibited the growth of selected bacteria at different extents. The most active antibacterial essential oils were those of the leaves of Eucalyptus camadulensis and Eucalyptus terticornis (12-30 mm zone diameter of inhibition). They showed particularly a most potent inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa growth (15-16 mm), followed by Eucalyptus robusta (12 mm). Essential oils from the leaves of Eucalyptus alba, Eucalyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus deglupta, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus robusta, Aframomum stipulatum, Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum americanum and that of the seeds of Monodora myristica showed also a good antibacterial activity (10-18 mm). Eucalyptus propinqua, Eucalyptus urophylla and Ocimum gratissimum essential oils were the less active samples against the selected bacteria. No correlation between the amount of major constituents such as 1,8-cineol, alpha-pinene, p-cymene, cryptone or thymol and the antibacterial activity was observed.

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of callus culture extracts and fractions from fresh apical stems of Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae): part 2.

The ethanolic extracts from fresh apical stems of Phyllanthus niruri L. (Euphorbiaceae) cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with IBA/BAP/Coco nucifera L. milk for 1, 2, 4 and 6 months were phytochemically and biologically investigated and compared with intact plant part and whole plant extracts. Results from the in vitro antiplasmodial testing indicated that the EtOH extract of a 1-month-old callus culture (IC(50) = 16.3 +/- 2.5 microg/ml) exhibited a higher activity than the ethanolic extracts of the fresh apical stem (IC(50) = 18.2 +/- 2.4 microg/ml) and callus cultures of 2-, 4- and 6-months-old (25 microg/ml < IC(50) < 40 microg/ml). These activities were however lower than that displayed by the ethanolic extract of the whole plant (IC(50) < 3 microg/ml). The EtOH extract of 1-month-old callus culture (the most active) was fractionated with solvents of different polarities. Its CH(2)Cl(2) fraction rich in terpenic constituents (IC(50) = 9.2 +/- 3.4 microg/ml) exhibited a higher antiplasmodial activity than its isoamylic alcohol fraction obtained at pH 2-3 (IC(50) = 25.6 +/- 2.3 microg/ml) rich in flavonoids. The activity of these two fractions was lower than that displayed by the same fractions from the whole plant (2 microg/ml < IC(50) < 3 microg/ml). Alkaloidic fractions from the whole plant and 1-month-old callus culture of fresh apical stem were considered as inactive (IC(50) > 100 microg/ml).

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of extracts and fractions from seven medicinal plants used in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

The in vitro antiplasmodial activity of seven EtOH extracts and twenty fractions from the partition of the initial ethanolic extracts from seven African medicinal plants used in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) for the treatment of malaria was evaluated. The most active EtOH extracts (IC50 < 3 microg/ml) were those from Cassia occidentalis leaves, Euphorbia hirta whole plant, Garcinia kola stem bark and Phyllanthus niruri whole plant. Their respective petroleum ether soluble fractions also exhibited an antiplasmodial activity with IC50 < 3 microg/ml. EtOH extracts from Vernonia amygdalina leaves (5 < IC50 < 10 microg/ml), Tetracera poggei leaves (10 < IC50 < 50 microg/ml) and Morinda morindoides leaves (50 < IC50 < 100 microg/ml) were less active, but their petroleum ether fractions exhibited a pronounced antiplasmodial activity (IC50 < 3 microg/ml). The same observation could also be made for the petroleum ether fraction from Cassia occidentalis, Euphorbia hirta, Garcinia kola and Phyllanthus niruri. Isoamyl alcohol fractions from Euphorbia hirta, Phyllanthus niruri and Vernonia amygdalina showed IC50) values less than 3 microg/ml, and from Cassia occidentalis, Garcinia kola, Morinda morindoides and Tetracera poggei between 10 and 50 microg/ml. The observed antiplasmodial activity may be related to the presence of terpenes, steroids, coumarins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans, xanthones and anthraquinones.

[Antispasmodic activity of extracts from plants used as anti-diarrhea preparations in Kinshasa, Zaïre]. / Activité antispasmodique d'extraits á partir de plantes utilisées en préparations comme antidiarrhéiques á Kinshasa, Zaïre.

A preliminary and anterior pharmacological study about 68 plant antidiarrheic traditional preparations, has proved the antispasmodic activity for 42 of them. Some extracts proceeding of these possess an antispasmodic activity, specially if they contain polyphenols (flavonoïds, catechics tanins), saponins and alkaloïds.

[Antibacterial activity of extracts from plants used in preparation as antidiarrheals at Kinshasa, Zaire]. / Activité antibactérienne d'extraits à partir de plantes utilisées en préparations comme antidiarrhéiques à Kinshasa, Zaïre.

A preliminary and anterior bacteriological study about 38 plant antidiarrheic traditional preparations, has demonstrated that 35 of them have bactericidal activity. Thirty inhibit the growth of all select germs and 5 exert this bactericidal effect on some germs. Some extracts proceeding of these possess a bactericidal activity, specially if they contain polyphenols (flavonoids, catechics tanins), saponins and alkaloids.

[In vitro study of the adsorption of chloroquine by an antidiarrheal remedy traditionally used in Africa]. / Etude in vitro de l'adsorption de la chloroquine par un remède antidiarrhéique employé traditionnellement en Afrique.

Mouboumou is a traditional medicine prepared from the inner part of termitarium and is used in traditional medicine in Zaire. In tropical diseases, antimalarial drugs are often used simultaneously with antidiarrheal absorbent drugs, which might, by their adsorbent properties, compromise the efficacy of the antimalarial treatment. The present in vitro study has allowed to determine the adsorption characteristics of chloroquine on Mouboumou; kaopectate was used a reference adsorbent. The adsorption of chloroquine by these two adsorbents is very important (from 30 to 60%) and fits quite well in with the Langmuir's relation. A decrease of bioavailability of chloroquine, due to the adsorption phenomena, might be observed in vivo and could contraindicate the concomitant administration of these drugs.

Development and validation of an HPLC-method for the determination of alkaloids in the stem bark extract of Nauclea pobeguinii.

A new method was developed and validated for the quantification of strictosamide in the extract of the stem bark of Nauclea pobeguinii. This plant belongs to the Rubiaceae family and is widely used in the African traditional medicine against malaria and malaria-like symptoms. Alkaloids are suspected to be responsible for the antimalarial activity. One of these alkaloids is strictosamide, already reported to be the major constituent in the root bark of this plant. Because strictosamide was not commercially available another alkaloid, ajmalicine HCl, with comparable properties was used as a secondary standard. The samples of the dried 80% ethanol extract from the stem bark of N. pobeguinii were purified on C(18) solid phase extraction cartridges and analysed using HPLC-UV. The strictosamide used for the validation of the correction factor for response was isolated and purified by means of preparative HPLC and TLC. Although the relative standard deviation (R.S.D.) of 2.6% was still acceptable, the response factor was determined for every analysis based on the ratio of the peak area of strictosamide compared to the peak area of ajmalicine HCl in a concentration of 0.01 mg/ml. The precision of the method according to the time and the concentration, had a R.S.D. value of 2.2% and 2.6%, respectively. The recovery of the method was 92.2% (R.S.D. of 9.4%) which was acceptable. The method has been proven to be suitable for the determination of alkaloids in the extract of the stem bark of N. pobeguinii, according to the ICH guidelines on the validation of analytical methods.

In vitro anticomplementary activity of constituents from Morinda morindoides.

In a screening program for complement classical pathway modulation, an 80% MeOH extract of the leaves of Morinda morindoides showed potent dose-dependent anticomplementary activity. Bioassay-guided chromatographic separation of the active constituents led to the isolation of ten flavonoids of which two were aglycones. The compounds were tested in vitro for their putative complement-inhibiting properties on the classical (CP) and the alternative (AP) pathways of the complement system. The results indicated that quercetin [1], quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside (quercitrin) [5], and quercetin 3-O-rutinoside (rutin) [7] showed similar anticomplementary activities (inhibition) on the CP of complement. A mixture of two kaempferol triglycosides isolated and denoted as M(015), also had a good inhibitory effect. The effects of these compounds were dose-dependent for this pathway. On the AP of complement, quercetin [1] and M(015) had, respectively, more pronounced inhibitory and activatory effects than the other tested flavonoids, but their effects were not dose-dependent for this pathway. The other isolated flavonoids showed weak effects or were inactive for both pathways.

Biological screening of traditional preparations from some medicinal plants used as antidiarrhoeal in Kinshasa, Congo.

Forty six aqueous extracts from 38 medicinal plant species belonging to different families were selected on the basis of their traditional medicinal use as antidiarrhoeic agents. They were submitted in a broad biological screening including antibacterial, antiamoebic and antispasmodic activities. The results of the testing have indicated that 37 extracts (80.43%), 33 (71.74%) and 32 (69.54%) exhibited some level of antibacterial, antiamoebic and antispasmodic activity respectively. Only 8 plant extracts (17.39%) would act as antidiarrhoeic agents by a triple pronounced antibacterial, antiamoebic and antispasmodic action. They include aqueous extracts from Euphorbia hirta whole plant, leaves of Psidium guajava and Tithonia diversifolia, root bark of Alchornea cordifolia, Heinsia pulchella, Paropsia brazzeana, Rauwolfia obscura and Voacanga africana.

Antibacterial and antifungal activities of neocryptolepine, biscryptolepine and cryptoquindoline, alkaloids isolated from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta.

From the 80% EtOH extract of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schlechter (Periplocaeae) root bark, a cryptolepine isomer named neocryptolepine, and two dimeric alkaloids named biscryptolepine and cryptoquindoline were isolated. These compounds were tested for their putative antibacterial and antifungal activities. Results have indicated that neocryptolepine showed an antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (MIC < 100 µg/ml), but was less acive against Gram-negative bacteria. It also inhibited the growth of the yeast C. albicans. Biscryptolepine exhibited only an activity against some Gram-positive bacteria (MIC = 62.5 or 31 µg/ml) while cryptoquindoline did not shown an activity against all selected microorganisms. The antibacterial activity of neocryptolepine and biscryptolepine is bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal. No antifungal activity could be observed for all alkaloids in our test system at the highest test concentration of 100 µg/ml.

In vitro biological activities of alkaloids from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta.

In our biological screening of higher plants, an aqueous and an 80% EtOH extract from the root bark of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta showed potent antibacterial, anticomplementary, and moderate antiviral activities, but no antifungal effect could be detected. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the 80% EtOH extract led to the isolation of three alkaloids: quindoline (1), hydroxycryptolepine (2), cryptolepine.HCl (3), and the corresponding base cryptolepine (4). All compounds strongly inhibited the growth of Gram-positive bacteria (MIC < or = 100 micrograms/ml) and showed a moderate (MIC = 125 or 250 micrograms/ml), a weak (MIC = 500 micrograms/ml), or no activity (MIC > 500 micrograms/ml) against selected Gram-negative bacteria. They also possessed a bactericidal effect depending on the bacterial strain. Compounds 1, 2 and 3 displayed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the classical pathway of the complement system while compounds 2 and 3 activated the alternative pathway, except for compound 1. Compound 3 was found to possess an antiherpetic activity. Compounds 1 and 4 showed no antiviral effect, but were quite cytotoxic in the antiviral test system down to a concentration of 1 microgram/ml.

In-vivo antimalarial activity of Cassia occidentalis, Morinda morindoides and Phyllanthus niruri.

The ethanolic, dichloromethane and lyophilized aqueous extracts of Cassia occidentalis root bark, Morinda morindoides leaves and whole plants of Phyllanthus niruri were evaluated for their antimalarial actvity in vivo, in 4-day, suppressive assays against Plasmodium berghei ANKA in mice. No toxic effect or mortality was observed in mice treated, orally, with any of the extracts as a single dose, of 500 mg/kg body weight, or as the same dose given twice weekly for 4 weeks (to give a total dose of 4 g/kg). No significant lesions were observed, by eye or during histopathological examinations, in the hearts, lungs, spleens, kidneys, livers, large intestines or brains of any mouse. At doses of 200 mg/kg, all the ethanolic and dichloromethane extracts produced significant chemosuppressions of parasitaemia (of > 60% for C. occidentalis root bark and Ph. niruri whole plant, and of 30% for M. morindoides leaves) when administered orally. The most active ethanolic extract, that of Ph. niruri, reduced parasitaemia by 73%. The dichloromethane extracts of M. morindoides and Ph. niruri produced similar reductions (74% and 72% chemosuppression, respectively), whereas that of C. occidentalis was slightly less active (60% chemosuppression). Each lyophilized aqueous extract was less active than the corresponding ethanolic extract.

Antiamoebic and spasmolytic activities of extracts from some antidiarrhoeal traditional preparations used in Kinshasa, Congo.

Three major extracts from some traditional preparations, based on medicinal plants, used as antidiarrhoeal agents were investigated for their putative antiamoebic and spasmolytic activities in vitro. Results indicated that both biological activities are concentrated in the polyphenolic fraction, and not in the saponin or alkaloid containing fractions. The most active polyphenolic extracts were those from Euphorbia hirta whole plant, leaves of Alchornea cordifolia, Crossopteryx febrifuga, Nauclea latifolia, Psidium guajava, Tithonia diversifolia, stem bark of Harungana madagascariensis, Mangifera indica, Maprounea africana and Psidium guajava, inhibiting Entamoeba histolytica growth with MAC < 10 micrograms/ml. The same extracts, at a concentration of 80 micrograms/ml in an organ bath, also exhibited more than 70% inhibition of acetylcholine and/or KCl solution-induced contractions on isolated guinea-pig ileum.

Complement-modulating properties of a kaempferol 7-O-rhamnosylsophoroside from the leaves of Morinda morindoides.

A kaempferol 7-O-rhamnosylsophoroside isolated from the leaves of Morinda morindoides showed dose-dependent complement-modulating properties towards both the classical (inhibiting effect) and alternative (activating effect) pathways of the complement system. Its structure was elucidated by chemical and spectroscopic methods as kaempferol 7-O-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-->6)]-[beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-->2)]-be ta-D-glucopyranoside, a new natural product which was named morindaoside.