Structured treatment interruptions (STI) in chronic unsuppressed HIV infection in adults.

BACKGROUND: Structured treatment interruptions (STI) of antiretroviral therapy (ART) have been investigated as part of novel treatment strategies, with different aims and objectives depending on the populations involved. These populations include: 1) patients who initiate ART during acute HIV infection; 2) patients with chronic HIV infection, on ART, with successfully suppressed viremia; and 3) patients with chronic HIV infection and treatment failure, with persistent viremia due to multi-drug resistant HIV (Hirschel 2001; Deeks 2002; Miller 2003). In an earlier Cochrane review (Pai 2005), we had summarized the evidence about the effects of STI in chronic suppressed HIV infection. In this review, we summarize the evidence on STI in patients with chronic unsuppressed HIV infection due to drug-resistant HIV. Unsuppressed HIV infection describes those patients who cannot suppress viremia, due to the presence of multi-drug-resistant virus. It is also referred to as treatment failure. Drug resistance is identified by the presence of resistant mutations at baseline.STI as a treatment strategy in HIV-infected patients with chronic unsuppressed viremia involves interrupting ART in controlled clinical settings, for a pre-specified duration of time. These interruptions have various aims, including the following: 1) to allow wild virus to re-emerge and replace the resistant mutant virus, with the hope of improving the efficacy of a subsequent ART regimen; 2) to halt development of drug resistance and to preserve subsequent treatment options; 3) to alleviate treatment fatigue and reduce drug-related adverse effects; and 4) to improve quality of life (Miller 2003; Montaner 2001; Vella 2000;). OBJECTIVES: The objective of our systematic review was to synthesize the evidence on the effect of structured treatment interruptions in adult patients with chronic unsuppressed HIV infection. SEARCH STRATEGY: We included all available intervention studies (randomized controlled trials and non-randomized trials) conducted in HIV-infected patients worldwide. We searched nine databases, covering the period from January 1996 to February 2006. We also scanned bibliographies of relevant studies and contacted experts in the field to identify unpublished research, abstracts and ongoing trials. In the first screen, a total of 3186 potentially eligible citations from nine databases and sources were identified, of which 2047 duplicate citations were excluded. The remaining 1139 citations were examined in detail, and we further excluded 951 citations that were modeling studies, animal studies, case reports, and opinion pieces. As shown in Figure 01, 188 citations were identified in the second screen as relevant for full-text screening. Of these, 60 basic science studies, editorials and abstracts were excluded and 128 full-text articles were retrieved. In the third screen, all full-text articles were examined for eligibility in our review. These were subclassified into three categories: 1) chronic suppressed HIV infection; 2) chronic unsuppressed HIV infection; and 3) acute HIV infection. Studies were further excluded if their abstracts did not contain enough information for inclusion in our reviews. A total of 62 studies were finally classified into chronic suppressed, acute, and chronic unsuppressed categories. Of these, 17 trials met the eligibility criteria for this review. SELECTION CRITERIA: Inclusion criteriaAll available randomized or non-randomized controlled trials investigating planned treatment interruptions among patients with chronic unsuppressed HIV infection. Early pilot non-randomized prospective studies on treatment interruptions of fixed and variable durations were also included. Relevant abstracts on randomized controlled trials were also included if they contained sufficient information. Exclusion criteriaEditorials, reviews, modeling studies, and basic science studies were excluded. Studies on STI among patients with chronic suppressed HIV infection were summarized in a separate review. Studies on STI in primary HIV infection were beyond the scope of this review. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently extracted data, evaluated study eligibility and quality. Disagreements were resolved in consultation with a third reviewer.A total of seventeen studies on STI were included in our review. However, due to significant heterogeneity across studies (i.e. in study design, populations, baseline characteristics, and reported outcomes; and in reporting of measures of effect, hazard ratios, and risk ratios), we considered it inappropriate to perform a meta-analysis. MAIN RESULTS: In early pilot non-randomized trials, a pattern was evident across studies. During treatment interruption, a decline in CD4 cell counts, increase in viral load, and a shift in the level of genotypic drug resistance towards more of a wild-type HIV virus was reported. This suggests that STI may be used to increase drug susceptibility to an optimized salvage regimen upon treatment re-initiation. These studies generated useful data and hypotheses that were later tested in randomized controlled trials. Randomized controlled trials rated high on quality. Of the eight randomized controlled trials reviewed, seven had been completed while one was ongoing and remains blinded. Of the seven completed randomized controlled trials, six have reported consistent virologic and immunologic patterns, and found no significant benefit in virologic response to subsequent ART in the STI arm, compared to the control arm. In addition, the largest completed randomized trial reported greater numbers of clinical disease progression events and evidence of prolonged negative impact on CD4 cell counts in the STI arm (Beatty 2005; Benson 2004; Deeks 2001; Lawrence 2003; Walmsley 2005; Ruiz 2003). The single RCT with divergent findings from the others (GigHAART), reporting a significant virologic and immunologic benefit due to STI, was different in prescribing a shorter STI duration and a salvage ART regimen of 8-9 drugs. There were also differences in the patient population characteristics with this study, targeting those with very advanced HIV disease (Katlama 2004). Although we await the unblinded results of the eighth RCT (OPTIMA), the evidence so far does not support STI in the setting of chronic unsuppressed HIV infection with antiretroviral treatment failure (Brown 2004; Holodniy 2004; Kyriakides 2002; Singer 2006). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The current available evidence primarily supports a lack of benefit of STI before switching therapy in patients with unsuppressed HIV viremia despite ART. There is evidence of harm in attempting STI in patients with relatively advanced HIV disease, due to the associated CD4 cell decline and the increased risk of clinical disease progression. At this time, there is no evidence to recommend the use of STI in this clinical category of patients with treatment failure.

Structured treatment interruptions (STI) in chronic suppressed HIV infection in adults.

BACKGROUND: Although antiretroviral treatment (ART) has led to a decline in morbidity and mortality of HIV-infected patients in developed countries, it has also presented challenges. These challenges include increases in pill burden; adherence to treatment; development of resistance and treatment failure; development of drug toxicities; and increase in cost of HIV treatment and care. These issues stimulated interest in investigating the short-term and long-term consequences of discontinuing ART, thus providing support for research in structured treatment interruptions (STI). Structured treatment interruptions of antiretroviral treatment involve taking supervised breaks from ART. STI are defined as one or more planned, timing pre-specified, cyclical interruptions in ART. STI are attempted in monitored clinical settings in eligible participants. STI have generated hopes of reducing drug toxicities, decreasing costs and total time on treatment in HIV-positive patients. The first STI was attempted in the case of a patient in Germany, who later permanently discontinued treatment. This successful anecdotal case report led to several trials on STI worldwide. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this systematic review was to assess the effects of structured treatment interruptions (STI) of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in the management of chronic suppressed HIV infection, using all available high-quality studies. SEARCH STRATEGY: Nine databases covering the time period from January 1996 to March 2005 were searched. Bibliographies were scanned and experts contacted in the field to identify unpublished research and ongoing trials. Two reviewers independently extracted data, and evaluated study eligibility and quality. Disagreements were resolved in consultation with a third reviewer. Data from 33 studies were included in the review. SELECTION CRITERIA: STI is a planned, timing pre-specified experimental intervention. In our review, we decided to include all available intervention trials in HIV-infected patients, with or without control groups. We reviewed evidence from 18 randomized and non-randomized controlled trials, and 15 single arm trials. Single arm trials were included because these pilot studies made significant contribution to the early development and refutation of hypotheses in STI. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Trials included in this review varied in study participants, methodology and reported inconsistent measures of effect. Due to this heterogeneity, we did not attempt to meta-analyse them. Results were tabulated and a qualitative systematic review was done MAIN RESULTS: For the purpose of this review, STI strategies were classified either as a timed-cycle STI strategy or a CD4-guided STI strategy. In timed-cycle STI strategy, a predetermined period of fixed duration (e.g. one week, one month) off ART was attempted followed by resumption of ART, while closely monitoring changes in CD4 levels and viral load levels. Predetermined criteria for interruption and resumption were laid out in this strategy. Timed-cycle STI fell out of favor due to reports of development of resistance in many studies. Moreover, there were no significant immunological and virological benefits, and no reduction in toxicities, reported in these studies. In CD4-guided STI strategy, ART was interrupted for variable durations guided by CD4 levels. Participants with high nadir CD4 levels qualified for this approach. A reduction in costs of ART, a reduction in mutation, and a better tolerability of this CD4-guided STI strategy was reported. However, concerns about long-term safety of this strategy on immunological, virological, and clinical outcomes were also raised. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Timed-cycle STI have not been proven to be safe in the short term. Although CD4-guided STI strategy has reported favorable outcomes in the short term, the long-term safety, efficacy and tolerability of this strategy has not been fully investigated. Based on the studies we reviewed, the evidence to support the use of timed-cycle STI and CD4-guided STI cycles as a standard of care in the management of chronic suppressed HIV infection is inconclusive.

Tuberculosis prophylaxis in the homeless. A trial to improve adherence to referral.

BACKGROUND: Adherence to tuberculosis evaluation is poor in a high-risk population such as the homeless. OBJECTIVE: To test two interventions aimed at improving adherence to tuberculosis evaluation and to identify predictors of adherence. METHODS: We conducted a randomized clinical trial in shelters and food lines in the inner city of San Francisco, Calif. We randomized 244 eligible subjects infected with tuberculosis to (1) peer health adviser (assistance by a peer [n = 83]), (2) monetary incentive ($5 payment [n = 82]), or (3) usual care (referral slips and bus tokens only [n = 79]). The primary outcome of the study was adherence to a first follow-up appointment at the tuberculosis clinic, where subjects were evaluated for active tuberculosis and the need for isoniazid prophylaxis. RESULTS: Of the subjects assigned to a monetary incentive, 69 (84%) completed their first follow-up appointment, compared with 62 subjects (75%) assigned to a peer health adviser and 42 subjects (53%) assigned to usual care. Adherence was higher in the monetary incentive and peer health adviser groups than in the usual care group (P < .001 and P = .004, respectively). Patients not using intravenous drugs and patients 50 years of age or older were more likely to adhere to a first follow-up appointment (odds ratios [95% confidence intervals], 2.5 [1.3 to 5.0] and 3.3 [1.2 to 8.8], respectively). Among the 173 tuberculosis-infected subjects who completed their appointment, isoniazid therapy was started for 72 individuals, and three cases of active tuberculosis were identified. CONCLUSION: A monetary incentive or a peer health adviser is effective in improving adherence to a first follow-up appointment in homeless individuals infected with tuberculosis. A monetary incentive appears to be superior. Intravenous drug users and young individuals are at high risk for poor adherence to referral.

Adherence to isoniazid prophylaxis in the homeless: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: To test 2 interventions to improve adherence to isoniazid preventive therapy for tuberculosis in homeless adults. We compared (1) biweekly directly observed preventive therapy using a $5 monetary incentive and (2) biweekly directly observed preventive therapy using a peer health adviser, with (3) usual care at the tuberculosis clinic. METHODS: Randomized controlled trial in tuberculosis-infected homeless adults. Outcomes were completion of 6 months of isoniazid treatment and number of months of isoniazid dispensed. RESULTS: A total of 118 subjects were randomized to the 3 arms of the study. Completion in the monetary incentive arm was significantly better than in the peer health adviser arm (P = .01) and the usual care arm (P = .04), by log-rank test. Overall, 19 subjects (44%) in the monetary incentive arm completed preventive therapy compared with 7 (19%) in the peer health adviser arm (P = .02) and 10 (26%) in the usual care arm (P = .11). The median number of months of isoniazid dispensed was 5 in the monetary incentive arm vs 2 months in the peer health adviser arm (P = .005) and 2 months in the usual care arm (P = .04). In multivariate analysis, independent predictors of completion were being in the monetary incentive arm (odds ratio, 2.57; 95% CI, 1.11-5.94) and residence in a hotel or other stable housing at entry into the study vs residence on the street or in a shelter at entry (odds ratio, 2.33; 95% CI, 1.00-5.47). CONCLUSIONS: A $5 biweekly cash incentive improved adherence to tuberculosis preventive therapy compared with a peer intervention or usual care. Living in a hotel or apartment at the start of treatment also predicted the completion of therapy.

Effect of directly observed preventive therapy for latent tuberculosis infection in San Francisco.

SETTING: San Francisco TB Clinic instituted a directly observed preventive therapy (DOPT) program for treatment of persons with latent TB infection in 1996. OBJECTIVE: To examine therapy completion for latent tuberculosis infection before and after implementation of the DOPT program. DESIGN: Medical records were analyzed for patients at the San Francisco TB Clinic referred from high-risk sites for the periods 1993-1994 (n = 619) and 1997-June 1998 (n = 460). Treatment completion and time of therapy were analyzed comparing DOPT to self-administered therapy (SAT). RESULTS: More DOPT patients completed treatment (70.3%) than SAT patients (47.9%) (P < 0.001). Controlling for sex, age, race/ethnic group and cohort, patients on DOPT were nearly twice as likely to complete therapy (OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.25-3.00). CONCLUSION: DOPT is a successful strategy. Combined with targeted testing, DOPT can have an important impact in areas with traditionally low rates of treatment adherence.

A clinical trial of a financial incentive to go to the tuberculosis clinic for isoniazid after release from jail.

SETTING: Screening for active tuberculosis (TB) and providing isoniazid (INH) preventive therapy in jails are important control measures. In San Francisco, however, historical data showed that 62% of inmates were released before completing preventive therapy, and of those only 3% attended the TB Clinic for follow-up. OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: A randomized clinical trial to compare a $5 cash incentive plus standardized TB education with standardized TB education alone in encouraging released inmates to make a first visit to the clinic. RESULTS: Of 79 persons enrolled in the trial, 77.2% were released before INH completion. Rates of first visit were not significantly different for those receiving +5 plus standardized education (25.8%) versus standardized education alone (23.3%), but were higher than rates seen in historical data for inmates not receiving standardized education. Age was an important predictor of completion of a first visit (odds ratio 1.09, 95% confidence interval 1.02-1.16, P = 0.017). Other variables predicting adherence included intent to adhere, more previous time in jail, stable housing, and being partnered versus alone, although these were not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Standardized education may be important in improving follow-up after release. Further work on the role of a financial incentive in this population is needed.

Tuberculosis prevalence in an urban jail: 1994 and 1998.

SETTING: Despite a continuing decline in tuberculosis (TB) in the US, jails remain a high-risk setting for the identification of active and latent TB infection (LTBI). OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to document the change in TB prevalence in the San Francisco City and County Jail. DESIGN: Two period prevalence analyses were done, for 1994 and 1998. The sample included all persons booked into jail during the two years. The rates of inmates screened and the prevalence of active TB and LTBI by sex and ethnicity were compared using computerized records. RESULTS: Prevalence of active TB was 72.1 per 100000 jail population for 1998, and did not change significantly from 1994. In 1998 one third of active TB cases were found through jail screening. Latinos represented respectively 20.1% and 17.7% of those booked in 1994 and 1998, but 43.0% and 41.7% of inmates with LTBI. In 1998, being Latino (odds ratio 2.9) and male (odds ratio 1.6) were most strongly associated with LTBI. CONCLUSION: Screening for TB among jail inmates is an increasingly valuable clinical and epidemiological tool for case-finding and for identifying persons who would benefit from preventive therapy.

Can the poor adhere? Incentives for adherence to TB prevention in homeless adults.

SETTING: Community-based population of homeless adults living in San Francisco, California. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of cash and non-cash incentives on 1) adherence to treatment for latent tuberculosis infection, and 2) length of time needed to look for participants who missed their dose of medications. DESIGN: Prospective, randomized clinical trial comparing a 5 dollar cash or a 5 dollar non-cash incentive. All participants received directly observed preventive therapy and standardized follow-up per a predetermined protocol. Completion rates and amount of time needed to follow up participants was measured. RESULTS: Of the 119 participants, 102 (86%) completed therapy. There was no difference between the cash and non-cash arms. Completion was significantly higher among males (OR 5.65, 95%CI 1.36-23.40, P = 0.02) and persons in stable housing at study entry (OR 4.86, 95%CI 1.32-17.94, P = 0.02). No substance use or mental health measures were associated with completion. Participants in the cash arm needed significantly less follow-up to complete therapy compared to the non-cash arm (P = 0.03). In multivariate analysis, non-cash incentive, use of crack cocaine, and no prior preventive therapy were associated with more follow-up time. CONCLUSION: Simple, low cost incentives can be used to improve adherence to TB preventive therapy in indigent adults.

Jail inmates and HIV care: provision of antiretroviral therapy and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia prophylaxis.

The objective of this study was to examine prescription and acceptance of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) prophylaxis in jail and at release. A retrospective cross sectional design was used, by record review, of 77 inmates receiving HIV-related care in the San Francisco City and County Jail and released to the community in 1997. Average CD4 cell count was 335/microl. Fifteen had undectable HIV RNA, and average viral load was 19,826 copies/ml. Fifty-eight per cent were put on ART in jail. Lower CD4 cell count was associated with ART (P=0.017). All inmates with CD4 cell counts less than 200/microl received PCP prophylaxis. According to 1996 guidelines, 72% of those eligible for ART were on therapy. Of 24 inmates released on ART, 71% followed medical advice and picked up medication at release. HIV care in the San Francisco Jail met high standards and exceeded levels reported in other populations.

Tracking and follow-up of marginalized populations: a review.

Maintaining study cohorts is a key element of longitudinal research. Participant attrition introduces the possibility of bias and limits the generalizability of a study's findings, but with appropriate planning it is possible to sustain contact with even the most transient participants. This paper reviews the essential elements of tracking and follow-up of marginalized populations, which are (1) collection of contact information, (2) thorough organization of tracking efforts, (3) attention to staff training and support, (4) use of phone and mail follow-up, (5) use of incentives, (6) establishing rapport with participants, (7) assurance of confidentiality, (8) use of agency tracking, (9) use of field tracking, and (10) attention to safety concerns. Diligent application of these tracking strategies allows researchers to achieve follow-up rates of 75 percent to 97 percent with vulnerable populations such as homeless, mentally ill adults, injection drug users, and runaway youth.

Cancer screening in homeless women: attitudes and behaviors.

Little is known about the use of cancer-screening services in homeless women and their attitudes about early detection programs. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with homeless women in San Francisco to determine rates of clinical breast exams, mammograms, and Pap smears. A total of 105 women were randomly selected from two homeless shelters. By self-report, 51 percent were current on clinical breast exams, 47 percent on mammograms, and 54 percent on Pap smears. These women had very positive attitudes toward receiving cancer-screening exams. In multivariate analyses, discussion about cancer prevention with a health care provider predicted current clinical breast exams and mammograms. More medical visits predicted being current on mammograms and Pap smears. Although homeless women represent a unique group of the urban poor, they are accessing cancer-screening exams at rates comparable to the general population.

Improving tuberculosis therapy completion after jail: translation of research to practice.

Inmates have high rates of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), but inmates are often released early and do not complete therapy in the community. This study evaluated the translation of results from a randomized trial to improve therapy completion to usual care in a county jail using Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation theory. Inmates who received a single education in the randomized trial in 1998-1999 (study group) were compared to inmates educated by Jail Discharge Planners in 2002-2003 (usual care group). Outcomes were rates of completion of a visit to the TB clinic and completion of therapy. Subjects in the usual care group were significantly less likely to go to clinic in the 30-day period after release (relative risk 0.84, 95% confidence interval 0.75-0.95). The transfer of an educational protocol did not achieve results seen under study conditions, mostly because of implementation fidelity. The educational session in the usual care period for 81.0% of inmates took 5 min, as compared to 10-15 min during the randomized trial. Differences in personnel administering the protocol, training, high turnover and time available may also account for lower rates seen. Practical clinical trials should focus on the context of care as well as the intervention and should have participation by those who will be implementing results.

Locating study subjects: predictors and successful search strategies with inmates released from a U.S. county jail.

Minimizing loss to follow-up in longitudinal studies is critical. The purpose of this study was to examine the ability to locate subjects recently released from jail, identify predictors of being able to find a subject, and describe effective search strategies for this unique population. The sample for this cohort study included study subjects who were sought for interview after release from jail. Inmates in the San Francisco City and County Jail were enrolled in a randomized trial of incentives to improve follow-up for tuberculosis therapy after release from jail. Sociodemographic, health-related, and extensive locating information was collected during baseline interviews in jail. The main outcome was successful location of the subject. Study personnel recorded data on the number and nature of attempts made to find subjects in order to describe successful search strategies. Of 254 persons sought for the postrelease interview, 188 (74.0%) were found. Primary English speakers were more likely than Spanish speakers to be found (relative risk: 3.2, 95% confidence interval: 1.5-6.7, p = 0.002). Nearly one quarter of subjects (24%) were found back in jail, and the remainder were found in the community. Phone calls and letters to the subjects, and personal contacts to family and friends were successful strategies for 53% of the subjects. Seeking persons in programs, such as shelters and drug and alcohol programs, was successful in finding 18% of English-speaking subjects. Outreach efforts in sections of the city where Latinos spent time, including popular restaurants and community gathering places, were successful in finding 13% of Spanish-speaking subjects. We conclude that study subjects released from jails can be successfully located using well-defined search protocols tailored to the ethnicity of the sample and including a variety of strategies. Employment of bilingual personnel is important when a large proportion of subjects is monolingual and non-English speaking.

Association between time homeless and perceived health status among the homeless in San Francisco.

The purpose of this study was to describe the perceived health of the homeless, and to measure the effect of time homeless on perceived health status, after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics and health conditions. The design was cross-sectional; the population was a representative sample of homeless in San Francisco, interviewed on health issues. Analysis of predictors of poor or fair health status was by logistic regression. In this sample of 2780 persons, 37.4% reported that their health status was poor or fair as compared to good or excellent. Reporting poor or fair health status was significantly associated with time homeless, after controlling for sociodemographic variables and health problems including results from screening for HIV and TB (OR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.24-1.79). Comparisons with data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) showed poorer health status among the homeless persons in this study. Standardized morbidity ratios were highest for asthma; there was twice the number of homeless persons reporting asthma, in younger as well as older adults, as would be expected using NHIS rates. There was also an excess of arthritis, high blood pressure and diabetes in those age 18-44 as compared to adults in the Health Interview Survey. The time spent homeless remains associated with self-reported health status, after known contributors to poor health are controlled. Persons who have been homeless for longer periods of time may be the persons to whom health care interventions should be aimed.

Tuberculosis in the homeless. A prospective study.

We set out to determine tuberculosis incidence and risk factors in the homeless population in San Francisco. We also examined the transmission of tuberculosis by molecular methods. We followed a cohort of 2,774 of the homeless first seen between 1990 and 1994. There were 25 incident cases during the period 1992 to 1996, or 270 per 100,000 per year (350/100,000 in African Americans, 450/100,000 in other nonwhites, 60/100,000 in whites). Ten cases were persons with seropositive HIV. Independent risk factors for tuberculosis were HIV infection, African American or other nonwhite ethnicity, positive tuberculin skin test (TST) results, age, and education; 60% of the cases had clustered patterns of restriction fragment length polymorphism, thought to represent recent transmission of infection with rapid progression to disease. Seventy-seven percent of African-American cases were clustered, and 88% of HIV-seropositive cases. The high rate of tuberculosis in the homeless was due to recent transmission in those HIV-positive and nonwhite. African Americans and other nonwhites may be at high risk for infection or rapid progression. Control measures in the homeless should include directly observed therapy and incentive approaches, treatment of latent tuberculous infection in those HIV-seropositive, and screening in hotels and shelters.

Detention of persistently nonadherent patients with tuberculosis.

CONTEXT: Patients with tuberculosis (TB) who are persistently nonadherent to treatment present a public health risk. In 1993, California created a new civil detention process and allowed detention of noninfectious but persistently nonadherent patients. OBJECTIVES: To determine (1) which patients TB controllers attempt to detain, (2) how often and where patients are detained, and (3) how many of these patients complete TB treatment. DESIGN: Case series with cross-sectional comparison to other adult TB patients in the study counties. SETTING: Twelve California counties with the largest number of new TB cases reported in 1994. SUBJECTS: All patients whom TB controllers sought to detain during 1994 and 1995 because of persistent nonadherence to treatment. DATA SOURCES: Public health records, interviews with county TB officials, and Reports of Verified Cases of Tuberculosis to the California Tuberculosis Control Branch. RESULTS: Tuberculosis controllers sought the civil detention or arrest of 67 patients during the study period (1.3% of adult TB patients with the same disease sites). Forty-six percent of these patients were homeless, 81% had drug or alcohol abuse, and 28% had mental illness. Tuberculosis controllers sought civil detention of 15 patients. Fourteen patients were detained (median length of detention, 14.5 days). Tuberculosis controllers sought to arrest 62 patients during the study period. Fifty-three patients were arrested (median time in jail, 83 days). In 10 cases, both civil and criminal detention were attempted. We analyzed completion of therapy after excluding patients who were not detained or who died or moved. Overall, 41 (84%) of the remaining 49 detained patients completed therapy. Of the patients who completed therapy, only 17 were detained until treatment was completed. Compared with other TB patients in these counties, detained patients had 4 times the proportion lost to follow-up and half the proportion completing therapy within 12 months. CONCLUSION: Further improvements in the care of persistently nonadherent patients may require more psychosocial services, appropriate facilities for civil detention, and detaining patients long enough to assure completion of treatment.

Risk of hepatitis B infection among young injection drug users in San Francisco: opportunities for intervention.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the demographic characteristics and risk behaviors for hepatitis B infection among injection drug users younger than 30 years with those aged 30 or older and to evaluate participants' knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of infection, screening, and vaccination against hepatitis B virus. DESIGN: A systematic sample of injection drug users not currently in a treatment program were recruited and interviewed at needle exchange programs and community sites. PARTICIPANTS: 135 injection drug users younger than 30 years and 96 injection drug users aged 30 or older. RESULTS: Injection drug users younger than 30 were twice as likely as drug users aged 30 or older to report having shared needles in the past 30 days (36/135 [27%] vs 12/96 [13%]). Injection drug users younger than 30 were also twice as likely to report having had more than two sexual partners in the past 6 months (80/135 [59%] vs 29/96 [30%]). Although 88 of 135 (68%) young injection drug users reported having had contact with medical providers within the past 6 months only 13 of 135 (10%) had completed the hepatitis B vaccine series and only 16 of (13%) perceived themselves as being at high risk of becoming infected with the virus. CONCLUSION: Few young injection drug users have been immunized even though they have more frequent contact with medical providers and are at a higher risk for new hepatitis B infection than older drug users. Clinicians caring for young injection drug users and others at high risk of infection should provide education, screening, and vaccination to reduce an important source of hepatitis B infection.

Screening for tuberculosis in jail and clinic follow-up after release.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to describe tuberculosis (TB) screening and preventive therapy in the San Francisco County Jail and to measure the follow-up rate at the public health department TB clinic. METHODS: The records of male inmates screened for 6 months in 1994 were reviewed. Those prescribed isoniazid and released before therapy ended were matched with TB clinic records. Inmates were considered to have followed up if they came to the TB clinic within 1 month of release. RESULTS: Of 3352 inmates screened, 553 (16.5%) reported a prior positive skin test, and 330 (26.9%) of 1229 tests placed and read were positive. Of those with positive tests, 151 (45.8%) began isoniazid. Most of the inmates were foreign-born Hispanics (80.8%). Ninety-three (61.6%) inmates were released before completion, after an average of 68.5 days. Three (3.2%) went to the TB clinic within a month. CONCLUSIONS: Jail represents an important screening site for TB, but care is not continued after release. Strategies are needed to enhance the continuity of isoniazid preventive care.