Influence of sex-specific concurrent changes in age, maturity status, and morphological covariates on the development of peak ventilatory variables in 10-17-year-olds.

PURPOSES: (i) To investigate the influence of concurrent changes in age, maturity status, stature, body mass, and skinfold thicknesses on the development of peak ventilatory variables in 10-17-year-olds; and, (ii) to evaluate the interpretation of paediatric norm tables of peak ventilatory variables. METHODS: Multiplicative multilevel modelling which allows both the number of observations per individual and the temporal spacing of the observations to vary was used to analyze the expired ventilation (peak [Formula: see text]) and tidal volume (peak VT) at peak oxygen uptake of 420 (217 boys) 10-17-year-olds. Models were founded on 1053 (550 from boys) determinations of peak ventilatory variables supported by anthropometric measures and maturity status. RESULTS: In sex-specific, multiplicative allometric models, concurrent changes in body mass and skinfold thicknesses (as a surrogate of FFM) and age were significant (p < 0.05) explanatory variables of the development of peak [Formula: see text], once these covariates had been controlled for stature had no additional, significant (p > 0.05) effect on peak [Formula: see text]. Concurrent changes in age, stature, body mass, and skinfold thicknesses were significant (p < 0.05) explanatory variables of the development of peak VT. Maturity status had no additional, significant (p > 0.05) effect on either peak [Formula: see text] or peak VT once age and morphological covariates had been controlled for. CONCLUSIONS: Elucidation of the sex-specific development of peak [Formula: see text] requires studies which address concurrent changes in body mass, skinfold thicknesses, and age. Stature is an additional explanatory variable in the development of peak VT, in both sexes. Paediatric norms based solely on age or stature or body mass are untenable.

Multilevel allometric modelling of maximum cardiac output, maximum arteriovenous oxygen difference, and peak oxygen uptake in 11-13-year-olds.

PURPOSES: To investigate longitudinally (1) the contribution of morphological covariates to explaining the development of maximum cardiac output ([Formula: see text] max) and maximum arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-vO2 diff max), (2) sex differences in [Formula: see text] max and a-vO2 diff max once age, maturity status, and morphological covariates have been controlled for, and, (3) the contribution of concurrent changes in morphological and cardiovascular covariates to explaining the sex-specific development of peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]). METHODS: Fifty-one (32 boys) 11-13-year-olds had their peak [Formula: see text], maximum heart rate (HR max), [Formula: see text] max, and a-vO2 diff max determined during treadmill running on three annual occasions. The data were analysed using multilevel allometric modelling. RESULTS: There were no sex differences in HR max which was not significantly (p > 0.05) correlated with age, morphological variables, or peak [Formula: see text]. The best-fit models for [Formula: see text] max and a-vO2 diff max were with fat-free mass (FFM) as covariate with age, maturity status, and haemoglobin concentration not significant (p > 0.05). FFM was the dominant influence on the development of peak [Formula: see text]. With FFM controlled for, the introduction of either [Formula: see text] max or a-vO2 diff max to multilevel models of peak [Formula: see text] resulted in significant (p < 0.05) additional contributions to explaining the sex difference. CONCLUSIONS: (1) With FFM controlled for, there were no sex differences in [Formula: see text] max or a-vO2 diff max, (2) FFM was the dominant influence on the development of peak [Formula: see text], and (3) with FFM and either [Formula: see text] max or a-vO2 diff max controlled for, there remained an unresolved sex difference of ~ 4% in peak [Formula: see text].

Youth cardiorespiratory fitness: evidence, myths and misconceptions.

Rigorously determined peak oxygen uptake is internationally recognized as the criterion measure of youth cardiorespiratory fitness. The assessment and interpretation of children's and adolescents' peak oxygen uptake and the relationship of the measure with other health-related variables are well documented. There has been a recent resurgence of interest in the prediction of peak oxygen uptake from field performance tests in young people. However, coupled with ratio-scaling of data and the raising of clinical red flags, these practices risk clouding our understanding of youth cardiorespiratory fitness and its relationship with current and future health. We believe these methods have the potential to mislead clinical practice and misguide recommendations for the promotion of youth cardiovascular health. We discuss relevant scientific evidence and interpretations that have emerged from predicting youth cardiorespiratory fitness from performance test scores. We argue that children deserve to have health care founded on evidence-based science and not on myths and misconceptions.

La consommation maximale d'oxygène rigoureusement déterminée est reconnue à l'échelle internationale comme la mesure du critère de la capacité cardiorespiratoire des jeunes. On dispose de nombreuses informations sur l'évaluation et l'interprétation de la consommation maximale d'oxygène des enfants et des adolescents, ainsi que sur le lien de la mesure avec d'autres variables relatives à la santé. On a récemment constaté un regain d'intérêt à l'égard de la prédiction de la consommation maximale d'oxygène à partir de tests de performance sur le terrain chez les jeunes. Néanmoins, associées à une mise à l'échelle proportionnelle des données et à la diffusion d'alertes cliniques, ces pratiques risquent de brouiller notre compréhension de la capacité cardiorespiratoire des jeunes et de son lien avec leur santé actuelle et future. Nous pensons que ces méthodes sont susceptibles d'altérer les pratiques cliniques et les recommandations liées à la promotion de la santé cardiovasculaire des jeunes. Nous examinons les données et les interprétations scientifiques pertinentes qui ont émergé de la prédiction de la capacité cardiorespiratoire des jeunes à partir des résultats des tests de performance. Nous soutenons que les enfants méritent de bénéficier de soins de santé fondés sur des données scientifiques, et non sur des mythes et des idées fausses.

La rigurosa determinación del consumo máximo de oxígeno es reconocida internacionalmente como la medida de criterio de la condición cardiorrespiratoria de los jóvenes. La evaluación e interpretación del consumo máximo de oxígeno de niños y adolescentes y la relación de la medida con otras variables relacionadas con la salud están bien documentadas. Recientemente ha resurgido el interés por la predicción del consumo máximo de oxígeno a partir de pruebas de rendimiento en campo en personas jóvenes. Sin embargo, junto con los datos de la escala de razón y el incremento de las señales de alerta clínicas, estas prácticas corren el riesgo de nublar nuestra comprensión de la condición cardiorrespiratoria en los jóvenes y su relación con la salud actual y futura. Se considera que estos métodos pueden inducir a error a la práctica clínica y a las recomendaciones mal orientadas para la promoción de la salud cardiovascular en los jóvenes. Se analizan las evidencias científicas relevantes y las interpretaciones que han surgido de la predicción de la condición cardiorrespiratoria en los jóvenes a partir de los puntajes de las pruebas de rendimiento. Se argumenta que los niños merecen que el cuidado de la salud se base en la ciencia basada en la evidencia y no en mitos y conceptos erróneos.

Multilevel allometric modelling of maximal stroke volume and peak oxygen uptake in 11-13-year-olds.

PURPOSE: To investigate (1) whether maximal stroke volume (SVmax) occurs at submaximal exercise intensities, (2) sex differences in SVmax once fat-free mass (FFM) has been controlled for, and, (3) the contribution of concurrent changes in FFM and SVmax to the sex-specific development of peak oxygen uptake [Formula: see text]. METHODS: The peak [Formula: see text] s of 61 (34 boys) 11-12-year-olds were determined and their SV determined during treadmill running at 2.28 and 2.50 m s-1 using carbon dioxide rebreathing. The SVmax and peak [Formula: see text] of 51 (32 boys) students who volunteered to be tested treadmill running at 2.50 m s-1 on three annual occasions were investigated using multilevel allometric modelling. The models were founded on 111 (71 from boys) determinations of SVmax, FFM, and peak [Formula: see text]. RESULTS: Progressive increases in treadmill running speed resulted in significant (p < 0.01) increases in [Formula: see text], but SV levelled-off with nonsignificant (p > 0.05) changes within ~ 2-3%. In the multilevel models, SVmax increased proportionally to FFM0.72 and with FFM controlled for, there were no significant (p > 0.05) sex differences. Peak [Formula: see text] increased with FFM but after adjusting for FFM0.98, a significant (p < 0.05) sex difference in peak [Formula: see text] remained. Introducing SVmax to the multilevel model revealed a significant (p < 0.05), but small additional effect of SVmax on peak [Formula: see text]. CONCLUSIONS: Fat-free mass explained sex differences in SVmax, but with FFM controlled for, there was still a ~ 5% sex difference in peak [Formula: see text]. SVmax made a modest additional contribution to explain the development of peak [Formula: see text] but there remained an unresolved sex difference of ~ 4%.

Development of peak oxygen uptake from 11-16 years determined using both treadmill and cycle ergometry.

PURPOSES: To investigate the development of peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]) assessed on both a treadmill and a cycle ergometer in relation with sex and concurrent changes in age, body mass, fat-free mass (FFM), and maturity status and to evaluate currently proposed 'clinical red flags' or health-related cut-points for peak [Formula: see text]. METHODS: Multiplicative multilevel modelling, which enables the effects of variables to be partitioned concurrently within an allometric framework, was used to analyze the peak [Formula: see text]s of 138 (72 boys) students initially aged 11-14 years and tested on three annual occasions. Models were founded on 640 (340 from boys) determinations of peak [Formula: see text], supported by anthropometric measures and maturity status. RESULTS: Mean peak [Formula: see text]s were 11-14% higher on a treadmill. The data did not meet the statistical assumptions underpinning ratio scaling of peak [Formula: see text] with body mass. With body mass appropriately controlled for boys' peak [Formula: see text]s were higher than girls' values and the difference increased with age. The development of peak [Formula: see text] was sex-specific, but within sex models were similar on both ergometers with FFM the dominant anthropometric factor. CONCLUSIONS: Data should not be pooled for analysis but data from either ergometer can be used independently to interpret the development of peak [Formula: see text] in youth. On both ergometers and in both sexes, FFM is the most powerful morphological influence on the development of peak [Formula: see text]. 'Clinical red flags' or health-related cut-points proposed without consideration of exercise mode and founded on peak [Formula: see text] in ratio with body mass are fallacious.

Development of 11- to 16-year-olds' short-term power output determined using both treadmill running and cycle ergometry.

PURPOSE: To investigate the development of peak power output (PP) and mean power output (MP) during two different modes of exercise in relation to sex and concurrent changes in age, body mass, fat-free mass (FFM), maturity status and, in the case of MP, peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]). METHODS: PP and MP were determined cycling against a fixed braking force (Wingate anaerobic test) and running on a non-motorized treadmill. Peak [Formula: see text] was determined using cycle ergometry and treadmill running. 135 (63 girls) students initially aged 11-14 years were tested over 2 days on three annual occasions. The data were analysed using multiplicative allometric modelling which enables the effects of variables to be partitioned concurrently within an allometric framework. Multiplicative models were founded on 301 (138 from girls) determinations of PP and MP on each ergometer. RESULTS: With body mass controlled for, both PP and MP increased with age but maturity status did not independently contribute to any of the multiplicative allometric models. Boys' PP and MP were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than girls' values on both ergometers. On both ergometers in both sexes, the most powerful morphological influence on PP and MP was FFM. Ergometer-specific peak [Formula: see text] had a significant (p < 0.05), additional effect in explaining the development of MP. CONCLUSIONS: The development of short-term power output is sex specific but within sex multiplicative allometric models of running- and cycling-determined PP and MP were similar, suggesting that either mode of exercise can be used in future studies of short-term power output in youth.

Interpreting Youth Aerobic Fitness: Promoting Evidence-Based Discussion­A Response to Dotan (2019)

We welcome Raffy Dotan's Letter to the Editor (14) as it gives us another opportunity to promote evidence-based discussion of the development of youth aerobic fitness. Readers of our contributions to the 2019 Special Issue of Pediatric Exercise Science (6,27,28) will recall that we concluded with, "The authors encourage all pediatric exercise scientists to engage with this discussion, to share ideas and methods, and be willing to explore alternatives. There are many issues to resolve and constructive, collaborative debate will speed our collective aim toward a better understanding of pediatric aerobic fitness in health and disease" (27, p. 256). Not the words of authors preaching a "gospel" with "evangelistic persistence" as Dotan (14) suggests, but of scientists genuinely seeking to stimulate evidence-based discussion of the development of youth aerobic fitness and its relationship with health and well-being.

Interpreting Aerobic Fitness in Youth: The Fallacy of Ratio Scaling.

In this paper, we draw on cross-sectional, treadmill-determined, peak oxygen uptake data, collected in our laboratory over a 20-year period, to examine whether traditional per body mass (ratio) scaling appropriately controls for body size differences in youth. From an examination of the work of pioneering scientists and the earliest studies of peak oxygen uptake, we show how ratio scaling appears to have no sound scientific or statistical rationale. Using simple methods based on correlation and regression, we demonstrate that the statistical relationships, which are assumed in ratio scaling, are not met in groups of similar aged young people. We also demonstrate how sample size and composition can influence relationships between body mass and peak oxygen uptake and show that mass exponents derived from log-linear regression effectively remove the effect of body mass. Indiscriminate use of ratio scaling to interpret young people's fitness, to raise "Clinical Red Flags", and to assess clinical populations concerns us greatly, as recommendations and conclusions based upon this method are likely to be spurious. We urge those involved with investigating youth fitness to reconsider how data are routinely scaled for body size.

Sex-Specific Longitudinal Modeling of Youth Peak Oxygen Uptake.

Purpose: To investigate peak oxygen uptake ( V˙O2 ) in relation to sex, age, body mass, fat-free mass (FFM), maturity, and overweight status. Methods: Multiplicative, allometric models of 10- to 18-year-olds were founded on 1057 determinations of peak V˙O2 supported by anthropometry and estimates of maturity status. Results: Baseline models with body mass controlled for showed age to exert a positive effect on peak V˙O2 , with negative estimates for age2, sex, and a sex-by-age interaction. Sex-specific models showed maturity status to have a positive effect on peak V˙O2 in addition to the effects of age and body mass. Introducing skinfold thicknesses to provide, with body mass, a surrogate for FFM explained maturity effects and yielded a significantly (P < .05) better statistical fit in all models compared with those based on FFM estimated from youth-specific skinfold equations. With girls only, the introduction of overweight, defined by body mass index, resulted in a small but significant (P < .05) negative effect, with an age-by-overweight status interaction. Conclusions: FFM has a powerful influence on peak V˙O2 in both sexes. Interpretation of the development of youth aerobic fitness and its application to health should reflect the sex- and maturity-associated variation in FFM.

Evaluating patient and public involvement in health research: from theoretical model to practical workshop.

BACKGROUND: There is a growing literature on evaluating aspects of patient and public involvement (PPI). We have suggested that at the core of successful PPI is the dynamic interaction of different forms of knowledge, notably lay and professional. We have developed a four-dimensional theoretical framework for understanding these interactions. AIM: We explore the practical utility of the theoretical framework as a tool for mapping and evaluating the experience of PPI in health services research. METHODS: We conducted three workshops with different PPI groups in which participants were invited to map their PPI experiences on wall charts representing the four dimensions of our framework. The language used to describe the four dimensions was modified to make it more accessible to lay audiences. Participants were given sticky notes to indicate their own positions on the different dimensions and to write explanatory comments if they wished. Participants' responses were then discussed and analysed as a group. RESULTS: The three groups were distinctive in their mapped responses suggesting different experiences in relation to having a strong or weak voice in their organization, having few or many ways of getting involved, addressing organizational or public concerns and believing that the organization was willing to change or not. DISCUSSION: The framework has practical utility for mapping and evaluating PPI interactions and is sensitive to differences in PPI experiences within and between different organizations. The workshops enabled participants to reflect collaboratively on their experiences with a view to improving PPI experiences and planning for the future.

Understanding why primary care doctors leave direct patient care: a systematic review of qualitative research.

BACKGROUND: UK general practitioners (GPs) are leaving direct patient care in significant numbers. We undertook a systematic review of qualitative research to identify factors affecting GPs' leaving behaviour in the workforce as part of a wider mixed methods study (ReGROUP). OBJECTIVE: To identify factors that affect GPs' decisions to leave direct patient care. METHODS: Qualitative interview-based studies were identified and their quality was assessed. A thematic analysis was performed and an explanatory model was constructed providing an overview of factors affecting UK GPs. Non-UK studies were considered separately. RESULTS: Six UK interview-based studies and one Australian interview-based study were identified. Three central dynamics that are key to understanding UK GP leaving behaviour were identified: factors associated with low job satisfaction, high job satisfaction and those linked to the doctor-patient relationship. The importance of contextual influence on job satisfaction emerged. GPs with high job satisfaction described feeling supported by good practice relationships, while GPs with poor job satisfaction described feeling overworked and unsupported with negatively impacted doctor-patient relationships. CONCLUSIONS: Many GPs report that job satisfaction directly relates to the quality of the doctor-patient relationship. Combined with changing relationships with patients and interfaces with secondary care, and the gradual sense of loss of autonomy within the workplace, many GPs report a reduction in job satisfaction. Once job satisfaction has become negatively impacted, the combined pressure of increased patient demand and workload, together with other stress factors, has left many feeling unsupported and vulnerable to burn-out and ill health, and ultimately to the decision to leave general practice.

Clarity and Confusion in the Development of Youth Aerobic Fitness.

Peak oxygen uptake ( V ˙ O 2 ) is internationally recognized as the criterion measure of youth aerobic fitness, but flawed laboratory assessments and fallacious interpretations of peak V ˙ O 2 in ratio with body mass have confused our understanding of the development of aerobic fitness. Moreover, the recent emergence of specious predictions of peak V ˙ O 2 from performance tests and the promotion of spurious "clinical red flags" and cardiometabolic cut-points have confused our understanding of the relationship between youth aerobic fitness and health. Recent longitudinal studies of 10-18-year-olds using multilevel allometric modeling have empirically demonstrated that peak V ˙ O 2 increases in accord with sex-specific, concurrent changes in age- and maturity status-driven morphological covariates with the timing and tempo of changes specific to individuals. During both cycle ergometry and treadmill running age- and maturity status- driven changes in fat free mass have been revealed as the most powerful morphological influences on the development of youth aerobic fitness. To bring some clarity to current confusion, this paper argues that future studies must be founded on rigorous assessment and interpretation of peak V ˙ O 2 and ensure that they address the development of youth aerobic fitness and its relationship with present and future health in relation to appropriate sex-specific morphological covariates governed by individual biological clocks.

The 20 m shuttle run is not a valid test of cardiorespiratory fitness in boys aged 11-14 years.

OBJECTIVES: The 20 m shuttle run test (20mSRT) is used to estimate cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) through the prediction of peak oxygen uptake ( V ˙ O 2 ), but its validity as a measure of CRF during childhood and adolescence is questionable. This study examined the validity of the 20mSRT to predict peak V ˙ O 2 . METHODS: Peak V ˙ O 2 was measured during treadmill running. Log-linear regression was used to correct peak V ˙ O 2 for body mass and sum of skinfolds plus age. Boys completed the 20mSRT under standardised conditions. Maximum speed (km/h) was used with age to predict peak V ˙ O 2 using the equation developed by Léger et al. Validity was examined from linear regression methods and limits of agreement (LoA). Relationships between 20mSRT performance and allometrically adjusted peak V ˙ O 2 , and predicted per cent fat were examined. RESULTS: The sample comprised 76 boys aged 11-14 years. Predicted and measured mass-related peak V ˙ O 2 (mL/kg/min) shared common variance of 32%. LoA revealed that measured peak V ˙ O 2 ranged from 15% below to 25% above predicted peak V ˙ O 2 . There were no significant relationships (p>0.05) between predicted peak V ˙ O 2 and measured peak V ˙ O 2 adjusted for mass, age and skinfold thicknesses. Adjusted for body mass and age, peak V ˙ O 2 was not significantly related (p>0.05) to 20mSRT final speed but a weak, statistically significant (r=0.24, p<0.05) relationship was found with peak V ˙ O 2 adjusted for mass and fatness. Predicted per cent fat was negatively correlated with 20mSRT speed (r=-0.61, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The 20mSRT reflects fatness rather than CRF and has poor validity grounded in its flawed estimation and interpretation of peak V ˙ O 2 in mL/kg/min.

The feasibility of using citizens to segment anatomy from medical images: Accuracy and motivation.

The development of automatic methods for segmenting anatomy from medical images is an important goal for many medical and healthcare research areas. Datasets that can be used to train and test computer algorithms, however, are often small due to the difficulties in obtaining experts to segment enough examples. Citizen science provides a potential solution to this problem but the feasibility of using the public to identify and segment anatomy in a medical image has not been investigated. Our study therefore aimed to explore the feasibility, in terms of performance and motivation, of using citizens for such purposes. Public involvement was woven into the study design and evaluation. Twenty-nine citizens were recruited and, after brief training, asked to segment the spine from a dataset of 150 magnetic resonance images. Participants segmented as many images as they could within three one-hour sessions. Their accuracy was evaluated by comparing them, as individuals and as a combined consensus, to the segmentations of three experts. Questionnaires and a focus group were used to determine the citizens' motivation for taking part and their experience of the study. Citizen segmentation accuracy, in terms of agreement with the expert consensus segmentation, varied considerably between individual citizens. The citizen consensus, however, was close to the expert consensus, indicating that when pooled, citizens may be able to replace or supplement experts for generating large image datasets. Personal interest and a desire to help were the two most common reasons for taking part in the study.

'Of Mice and Dementia': A filmed conversation on the use of animals in dementia research.

Preclinical science research focuses on the study of physiological systems regulating body functions, and how they are dysregulated in disease, in a non-human setting. For example, cells in a dish, computer simulations or animals. Scientific procedures traditionally involve a specialist scientist developing a hypothesis and subsequently testing it using an experimental set-up. The results are then disseminated to the wider scientific community, following peer review and only at the last stage the news will reach the general, lay public. In the last few years, some research funding institutions have promoted a different model, with the direct involvement of members of the public in the research co-creation, from the hypothesis development, to the grant revision, project monitoring and results communication. We personally experienced this model and brought it to a further level by producing a movie. Animal research is a very controversial topic as, while still being necessary for the investigation of body functions, it brings about issues related to the ethics, the regulation and the practical execution of experimental procedures on animals. Here we discuss the different stages of the ideation, production and outcomes of the movie 'Of Mice and Dementia', a filmed conversation on animal experimentation in dementia research. The conversation was between scientists and lay people with a direct experience of dementia.