Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Nucleocapsid Protein Inhibits Beta Interferon Production by Interacting with IRF3 To Block Its Activation.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is the etiological agent of peste des petits ruminants, causing acute immunosuppression in its natural hosts. However, the molecular mechanisms by which PPRV antagonizes the host immune responses have not been fully characterized. In particular, how PPRV suppresses the activation of the host RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) pathway has yet to be clarified. In this study, we demonstrated that PPRV infection significantly suppresses RLR pathway activation and type I interferon (IFN) production and identified PPRV N protein as an extremely important antagonistic viral factor that suppresses beta interferon (IFN-ß) and IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) expression. A detailed analysis showed that PPRV N protein inhibited type I IFN production by targeting interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), a key molecule in the RLR pathway required for type I IFN induction. PPRV N protein interacted with IRF3 (but not with other components of the RLR pathway, including MDA5, RIG-I, VISA, TBK1, and MITA) and abrogated the phosphorylation of IRF3. As expected, PPRV N protein also considerably impaired the nuclear translocation of IRF3. The TBK1-IRF3 interaction was involved significantly in IRF3 phosphorylation, and we showed that PPRV N protein inhibits the association between TBK1 and IRF3, which in turn inhibits IRF3 phosphorylation. The amino acid region 106 to 210 of PPRV N protein was determined to be essential for suppressing the nuclear translocation of IRF3 and IFN-ß production, and the 140 to 400 region of IRF3 was identified as the crucial region for the N-IRF3 interaction. Together, our findings demonstrate a new mechanism evolved by PPRV to inhibit type I IFN production and provide structural insights into the immunosuppression caused by PPRV.IMPORTANCE Peste des petits ruminants is a highly contagious animal disease affecting small ruminants, which threatens both small livestock and endangered susceptible wildlife populations in many countries. The causative agent, peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), often causes acute immunosuppression in its natural hosts during infection. Here, for the first time, we demonstrate that N protein, the most abundant protein of PPRV, plays an extremely important role in suppression of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) function and type I interferon (IFN) production by interfering with the formation of the TBK1-IRF3 complex. This study explored a novel antagonistic mechanism of PPRV.

RIG-I is responsible for activation of type I interferon pathway in Seneca Valley virus-infected porcine cells to suppress viral replication.

BACKGROUND: Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) is a key cytosolic receptor of the innate immune system. Seneca valley virus (SVV) is a newly emerging RNA virus that infects pigs causing significant economic losses in pig industry. RIG-I plays different roles during different viruses infections. The role of RIG-I in SVV-infected cells remains unknown. Understanding of the role of RIG-I during SVV infection will help to clarify the infection process of SVV in the infected cells. METHODS: In this study, we generated a RIG-I knockout (KO) porcine kidney PK-15 cell line using the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein-9 nuclease (Cas9) genome editing tool. The RIG-I gene sequence of RIG-I KO cells were determined by Sanger sequencing method, and the expression of RIG-I protein in the RIG-I KO cells were detected by Western bloting. The activation status of type I interferon pathway in Sendai virus (SeV)- or SVV-infected RIG-I KO cells was investigated by measuring the mRNA expression levels of interferon (IFN)-ß and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). The replicative state of SVV in the RIG-I KO cells was evaluated by qPCR, Western bloting, TCID50 assay and indirect immunofluorescence assay. RESULTS: Gene editing of RIG-I in PK-15 cells successfully resulted in the destruction of RIG-I expression. RIG-I KO PK-15 cells had a lower expression of IFN-ß and ISGs compared with wildtype (WT) PK-15 cells when stimulated by the model RNA virus SeV. The amounts of viral RNA and viral protein as well as viral yields in SVV-infected RIG-I WT and KO cells were determined and compared, which showed that knockout of RIG-I significantly increased SVV replication and propagation. Meanwhile, the expression of IFN-ß and ISGs were considerably decreased in RIG-I KO cells compared with that in RIG-I WT cells during SVV infection. CONCLUSION: Altogether, this study indicated that RIG-I showed an antiviral role against SVV and was essential for activation of type I IFN signaling during SVV infection. In addition, this study suggested that the CRISPR/Cas9 system can be used as an effective tool to modify cell lines to increase viral yields during SVV vaccine development.

Molecular cloning of Peking duck Toll-like receptor 3 (duTLR3) gene and its responses to reovirus infection.

BACKGROUND: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Among the TLRs, TLR3 is involved in the recognition of double-stranded RNA. This study was designed to explore the relationship between duTLR3 and duck reovirus (DRV) infection. METHODS: In this study, we cloned and performed a molecular characterization of the complete sequence of Peking duck TLR3 (duTLR3). The expression level of duTLR3 was also determined, along with the relative levels of Mx and IFN-α mRNA after DRV infection. RESULTS: The duTLR3 gene is 2776-bp long and encodes an 895-amino-acid-long protein. Sequence analysis of the product revealed the complete transcript of Peking duck TLR3, including the 88-bp 5'UTR, the 2688-bp coding sequence (ORF), and the 76-bp 3'UTR and poly(A) tail. DuTLR3 was found to share a high amino acid sequence similarity with TLR3 from Jing ding duck (99.6 %), Muscovy duck (97.1 %) and chicken (86.3 %). Additionally, the tissue distribution of duTLR3 suggested that it was abundantly expressed in various tissues, especially in the trachea, esophagus and pancreatic gland. Duck reovirus (DRV) infection resulted in high mRNA expression levels of duTLR3 in the spleen, liver, lung and brain. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that duTLR3 may play an important role in anti-viral defense mechanisms.

Multifunctional roles of leader protein of foot-and-mouth disease viruses in suppressing host antiviral responses.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) leader protein (L(pro)) is a papain-like proteinase, which plays an important role in FMDV pathogenesis. L(pro) exists as two forms, Lab and Lb, due to translation being initiated from two different start codons separated by 84 nucleotides. L(pro) self-cleaves from the nascent viral polyprotein precursor as the first mature viral protein. In addition to its role as a viral proteinase, L(pro) also has the ability to antagonize host antiviral effects. To promote FMDV replication, L(pro) can suppress host antiviral responses by three different mechanisms: (1) cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 γ (eIF4G) to shut off host protein synthesis; (2) inhibition of host innate immune responses through restriction of interferon-α/ß production; and (3) L(pro) can also act as a deubiquitinase and catalyze deubiquitination of innate immune signaling molecules. In the light of recent functional and biochemical findings regarding L(pro), this review introduces the basic properties of L(pro) and the mechanisms by which it antagonizes host antiviral responses.

Prevalence and pathogens of subclinical mastitis in dairy goats in China.

Subclinical mastitis, a costly disease for the dairy industry, is usually caused by intramammary bacterial infection. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of and pathogens involved in subclinical mastitis in dairy goats in China. A total of 683 dairy goats in the main breeding areas of China were selected, and milk samples were collected. Out of these, 313 (45.82 %) goats were detected distinct or strong positive for subclinical mastitis by using California mastitis test. Among these positive goats, 209 milk samples were used to identify the causing agents by a multiplex PCR assay, and results were listed as follows: coagulase-negative staphylococci (59.52 %), Staphylococcus aureus (15.24 %), Escherichia coli (11.43 %), and Streptococcus spp. (10.95 %). In conclusion, subclinical mastitis is a highly prevalent disease in dairy goats in China, and coagulase-negative staphylococci are the predominant pathogens.

Protective effects of a bacterially expressed NIF-KGF fusion protein against bleomycin-induced acute lung injury in mice.

Current evidence suggests that the keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) and the polymorphonuclear leukocyte may play key roles in the development of lung fibrosis. Here we describe the construction, expression, purification, and identification of a novel NIF (neutrophil inhibitory factor)-KGF mutant fusion protein (NKM). The fusion gene was ligated via a flexible octapeptide hinge and expressed as an insoluble protein in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The fusion protein retained the activities of KGF and NIF, as it inhibited both fibroblast proliferation and leukocyte adhesion. Next, the effects of NKM on bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in mice were examined. The mice were divided into the following four groups: (i) saline group; (ii) bleomycin group (instilled with 5 mg/kg bleomycin intratracheally); (iii) bleomycin plus dexamethasone (Dex) group (Dex was given intraperitoneally (i.p.) at 1 mg/kg/day 2 days prior to bleomycin instillation and daily after bleomycin instillation until the end of the treatment); and (iv) bleomycin plus NKM group (NKM was given i.p. at 2 mg/kg/day using the same protocol as the Dex group). NKM significantly improved the survival rates of mice exposed to bleomycin. The marked morphological changes and increased hydroxyproline levels resulted from the instillation of bleomycin (on Day 17) in the lungs were significantly inhibited by NKM. These results revealed that NKM can attenuate bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis, suggesting that NKM could be used to prevent bleomycin-induced lung damage or other interstitial pulmonary fibrosis.

The Nucleoprotein and Phosphoprotein of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Inhibit Interferons Signaling by Blocking the JAK-STAT Pathway.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is associated with global peste des petits ruminants resulting in severe economic loss. Peste des petits ruminants virus dampens host interferon-based signaling pathways through multiple mechanisms. Previous studies deciphered the role of V and C in abrogating IFN-ß production. Moreover, V protein directly interacted with signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1) and STAT2 resulting in the impairment of host IFN responses. In our present study, PPRV infection inhibited both IFN-ß- and IFN-γ-induced activation of IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) and IFN-γ-activated site (GAS) element, respectively. Both N and P proteins, functioning as novel IFN response antagonists, markedly suppressed IFN-ß-induced ISRE and IFN-γ-induced GAS promoter activation to impair downstream upregulation of various interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) and prevent STAT1 nuclear translocation. Specifically, P protein interacted with STAT1 and subsequently inhibited STAT1 phosphorylation, whereas N protein neither interacted with STAT1 nor inhibited STAT1 phosphorylation as well as dimerization, suggesting that the N and P protein antagonistic effects were different. Though they differed in their relationship to STAT1, both proteins blocked JAK-STAT signaling, severely negating the host antiviral immune response. Our study revealed a new mechanism employed by PPRV to evade host innate immune response, providing a platform to study the interaction of paramyxoviruses and host response.

Baculovirus surface display of E(rns) envelope glycoprotein of classical swine fever virus.

Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) causes significant losses in the pig industry in many countries. E(rns) is an envelope glycoprotein of CSFV which is known to induce virus-neutralizing antibodies and protective immunity in the natural host. In this study, one recombinant baculoviruses BacSC-E(rns) expressing histidine-tagged E(rns) with the transmembrane domain (TM) and cytoplasmic domain (CTD) derived from baculovirus envelope protein gp64 was constructed and its immunizing efficacy was evaluated in a mouse model. After infection, E(rns) was expressed and anchored on the plasma membrane of Sf-9 cells, as demonstrated by Western-blot and confocal microscopy. Immunogold electron microscopy demonstrated that the E(rns) glycoprotein was successfully displayed on the baculoviral envelope. Vaccine tests in animals showed that BacSC-E(rns) elicited significantly higher E(rns) antibody titers in the immunized mouse models than the control group. This demonstrates that the BacSC-E(rns) vaccine can be used potentially against CSFV infections. This is the first report demonstrating the potential of E(rns)-pseudotyped baculovirus as a CSFV vaccine.

Construction and applications of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus replicon.

The study of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) has long been hindered by the absence of an in vitro culture system. In this study, using RHDV as a model, a series of DNA-based reporter replicons were constructed in which the firefly luciferase (Fluc) gene was fused in-frame with the open reading frame of the replicon. In this construct, the Fluc gene was inserted where the coding region of viral structural protein was deleted and was under the control of a minimal cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate-early promoter. Fluc activity analysis showed that these reporter replicons replicate efficiently in mammalian cells. On the basis of the replicon, 5'non-coding regions (5'NCR) and genome-linked protein (VPg) were deleted, and the effect on the expression of replicon was analyzed. The results showed that the expression level of Fluc was reduced in the absence of 5'NCR and VPg, suggesting that the 5'NCR and VPg may play an important role in replication and/or translation of RHDV. To further verify the speculation, we also constructed a replication deficient mutant (pRHDV-luc/Δ3D), and the impact of 5'NCR and VPg deletion on viral translation efficiency was analyzed, our results indicated that both VPg and 5'NCR were involved in RHDV translation.

Variation in western equine encephalomyelitis viral strain growth in mammalian, avian, and mosquito cells fails to explain temporal changes in enzootic and epidemic activity in California.

The decrease in western equine encephalomyelitis virus (WEEV; Togaviridae, Alphavirus) activity in North America over the past 20-30 years has prompted research to determine if there have been concurrent declines in virulence. Six (WEEV) strains isolated from Culex tarsalis mosquitoes from California during each of the six preceding decades failed to show a consistent declining temporal trend in virus titer using mosquito (C6/36), avian (duck embryo fibroblast), or mammalian (Vero) cells, results similar to our recent in vivo studies using birds and mosquitoes. Titers measured by Vero cell plaque assay were consistently highest on mosquito cell culture, followed by avian and mammalian cell cultures. Similar to previous in vivo results in house sparrows and mice, titers for the IMP181 strain isolated in 2005 were significantly lower in both avian and mammalian cells. Real-time monitoring of changes in cell growth measured by electrical impedance showed consistent differences among cell types, but not WEEV strains. Collectively, these in vitro results failed to explain the decrease in WEEV enzootic and epidemic activity. Results with the IMP181 strain should be verified by additional sequencing, cell growth, and pathogenesis studies using concurrent or 2006 isolates of WEEV from California.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in dairy goats in Shaanxi Province, Northwestern China.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii is an important zoonotic pathogen causing significant human and animal health problems. Infection in dairy goats not only results in significant reproductive losses, but also represents an important source of human infection due to consumption of infected meat and milk. In the present study we report for the first time seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in Guanzhong and Saanen dairy goats in Shaanxi province, Northwestern China. RESULTS: Sera from 751 dairy goats from 9 farms in 6 counties were examined for T. gondii antibodies with an indirect haemagglutination (IHA) test. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 106 (14.1%) serum samples, with antibody titres ranging from 1:64 to 1:1024. Seropositive goats were found in all 9 farms and seroprevalences in Guanzhong (16.3%, 75/461) and Saanen (10.7%, 31/290) dairy goats were not statistically significantly different. All the factors (sex, age and location) reported in the present study affected prevalence of infection, and seroprevalence increased with age, suggesting postnatal acquisition of T. gondii infection. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present survey indicate that infection by T. gondii is widely prevalent in dairy goats in Shaanxi province, Northwestern China, and this has implications for prevention and control of toxoplasmosis in this province.

[Construction of an infectious clone of pseudorabies virus strain ZJ genome maintained as a bacterial artificial chromosome].

pHA2 plasmid sequence,with Bacterial Artificial Chromosome(BAC) vector and the GFP expression cassette, was introduced into the UL23(TK) gene of Pseudorabies virus(PRV)strain ZJ by homologous recombination,and the recombinant PRV (rPRV-HA2) was confirmed and isolated by plaque purification. The circular genome of rPRV-HA2 was electroporated into Escherichia coli strain DH10B and then the PRV BAC (pPRV) was recovered. The transfection of pPRV into VeroE6 cells resulted in productive infection. The rescued virus isolated following transfection was indistinguishable from rPRV-HA2 in cytopathic effects (CPE) and replication curve in vitro. The growth kinetics of the viruses indicated that partial deletion of TK gene and BAC vector insertion had no effect on the viral titre and plaque size in vitro. The PRV BAC system will enable quick and reliable manipulation of the viral genome for the functional investigation on the PRV genes and the development of PRV vector in vaccine.

[Construction of recombinant fowlpox virus expressing E0 gene of classical swine fever virus shimen strain and the animal immunity experiment].

The CSFV E0 gene was amplified from the plasmid pMD18-T-E0 by PCR and cloned into the FPV-P11 and FPV-pSY. The identified recombinant DNA was transfected into chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF) to package Fowlpox virus. E0 gene was confirmed to be integrated into the genome of recombinant Fowlpox virus by PCR, and Western blot was employed for detection of E0 expression in the chicken embryo fibroblasts infected with recombinant Fowlpox virus . The results of ELISA showed that systemic immune response to CSFV could be induced effectively after the mice were immunized three times with recombinant Fowlpox virus through celiac route, the titer of antibody was 1 : 4096. The protection experiment showed that 75% of piglets immunized three times with recombinant Fowlpox virus were survived, indicating that the recombinant Fowlpox virus was effective. This paper lays foundation for the study of CSFV live vector vaccine.

[Construction and sequencing of full-length cDNA clone of swine vesicular disease virus strain HK'1/70].

By RACE, 2 overlapping cDNA fragments (3'PCR and 5'PCR fragments) covering the full genome of swine vesicular disease virus strain HK'1/70 were amplified from total RNA extracted from experimentally infected suckling mice. These fragments were cloned into pGEM-T Easy vector, respectively. 5'PCR fragment was digested by enzymes of Aat II and BssH II, and the Aat II-BssH II-digested 5'PCR fragment was obtained and cloned into the recombinant pGEM-T Easy vector containing 3'PCR fragment,the recombinant plasmid encoding full-length cDNA of SVDV HK'I/70 strain was then obtained and sequenced. The results showed that the complete genome of HK'1/70 was 7401 nucleotides (nts) long (excluding the poly (A) tract) which encodes a single polyprotein of 2185 amino acids, a 5'u ntranslating region (UTR) of 743 nts, a 3'UTR of 102 nts and a poly (A) tail at least 74 adenines. T' promoter was added at the 5'e nd of the full-length cDNA and an additional Pspl406I restriction site was added at the 3'e nd of poly (A) tail. The nucleotide and amino acid sequences were compared and phylogenetic analysis was used to examine the evolutionary relationships. The results showed that HK'1 /70 belonged to the second antigenic group. SVD virus was antigenically closely related to Coxsackie B5 virus, and located on the branches of CB5 evolutionary tree. Successful construction of full-length cDNA clone of SVDV HK'1/70 strain lays foundation for rescuing SVDV effectively and enables further research of SVDV on molecular level.