Social and genetic associations with educational performance in a Scandinavian welfare state.

Recent research has suggested that across Western developed societies, the influence of genetics on educational outcomes is relatively constant. However, the degree to which family environment matters varies, such that countries with high levels of intergenerational mobility have weaker associations of family background. Research in this vein has relied on twin-based estimates, which involve variance decomposition, so direct assessment of the association of genes and environments is not possible. In the present study, we approach the question by directly measuring the impact of child genotype, parental genetic nurture, and parental realized education on educational achievement in primary and secondary school. We deploy data from a social democratic context (Norway) and contrast our findings with those derived from more liberal welfare state contexts. Results point to genetics only confounding the relationship between parent status and offspring achievement to a small degree. Genetic nurture associations are similar to those in other societies. We find no, or very small, gene-environment interactions and parent-child genotype interactions with respect to test scores. In sum, in a Scandinavian welfare state context, both genetic and environmental associations are of similar magnitude as in societies with less-robust efforts to mitigate the influence of family background.

Robust genetic nurture effects on education: A systematic review and meta-analysis based on 38,654 families across 8 cohorts.

Similarities between parents and offspring arise from nature and nurture. Beyond this simple dichotomy, recent genomic studies have uncovered "genetic nurture" effects, whereby parental genotypes influence offspring outcomes via environmental pathways rather than genetic transmission. Such genetic nurture effects also need to be accounted for to accurately estimate "direct" genetic effects (i.e., genetic effects on a trait originating in the offspring). Empirical studies have indicated that genetic nurture effects are particularly relevant to the intergenerational transmission of risk for child educational outcomes, which are, in turn, associated with major psychological and health milestones throughout the life course. These findings have yet to be systematically appraised across contexts. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to quantify genetic nurture effects on educational outcomes. A total of 12 studies comprising 38,654 distinct parent(s)-offspring pairs or trios from 8 cohorts reported 22 estimates of genetic nurture effects. Genetic nurture effects on offspring's educational outcomes (ßgenetic nurture = 0.08, 95% CI [0.07, 0.09]) were smaller than direct genetic effects (ßdirect genetic = 0.17, 95% CI [0.13, 0.20]). Findings were largely consistent across studies. Genetic nurture effects originating from mothers and fathers were of similar magnitude, highlighting the need for a greater inclusion of fathers in educational research. Genetic nurture effects were largely explained by observed parental education and socioeconomic status, pointing to their role in environmental pathways shaping child educational outcomes. Findings provide consistent evidence that environmentally mediated parental genetic influences contribute to the intergenerational transmission of educational outcomes, in addition to effects due to genetic transmission.

Tau and amyloid biomarkers modify the degree to which cognitive reserve and brain reserve predict cognitive decline.

OBJECTIVE: Brain reserve, cognitive reserve, and education are thought to protect against late-life cognitive decline, but these variables have not been directly compared to one another in the same model, using future cognitive and functional decline as outcomes. We sought to determine whether the influence of these protective factors on executive function (EF) and daily function decline was dependent upon Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology severity, as measured by the total tau to beta-amyloid (T-τ/Aß1-42) ratio in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). METHOD: Participants were 1201 older adult volunteers in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) study. Brain reserve was defined using a composite index of structural brain volumes (total brain matter, hippocampus, and white matter hyperintensity). Cognitive reserve was defined as the variance in episodic memory performance not explained by brain integrity and demographics. RESULTS: At higher levels of T-τ/Aß1-42, brain and cognitive reserve predicted slower decline in EF. Only brain reserve attenuated decline at lower levels of T-τ/Aß1-42. Education had no independent association with cognitive decline. CONCLUSIONS: These results point to a hierarchy of protection against aging- and disease-associated cognitive decline. When pathology is low, only structural brain integrity predicts rate of future EF decline. The ability of cognitive reserve to predict future EF decline becomes stronger as CSF biomarker evidence of AD increases. Although education is typically thought of as a proxy for cognitive reserve, it did not show any protective effects on cognition after accounting for brain integrity and the residual cognitive reserve index.

Birth-weight centile at term and school performance at 12 years of age: linked cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Birth weight, fetal growth and placental function influence cognitive development. The gradient of these associations is understudied, especially among those with a birth weight considered appropriate-for-gestational age. The aim of this study was to evaluate the associations between birth-weight centile and intellectual development in term/near-term infants across the entire birth-weight spectrum, in order to provide a basis for better understanding of the long-term implications of fetal growth restriction and reduced placental function. METHODS: This was a population-based cohort study of 266 440 liveborn singletons from uncomplicated pregnancies, delivered between 36 and 42 weeks of gestation. Perinatal data were obtained from the Dutch Perinatal Registry over the period 2003-2008 and educational data for children aged approximately 12 years were obtained from Statistics Netherlands over the period 2016-2019. Regression analyses were conducted to assess the association of birth-weight centile with school performance. The primary outcomes were mean school performance score, on a scale of 501-550, and proportion of children who reached higher secondary school level. RESULTS: Mean school performance score increased gradually with increasing birth-weight centile, from 533.6 in the 1st -5th birth-weight-centile group to 536.8 in the 81st -85th birth-weight-centile group. Likewise, the proportion of children at higher secondary school level increased with birth-weight centile, from 43% to 57%. Compared with the 81st -85th birth-weight-centile group, mean school performance score and proportion of children at higher secondary school level were significantly lower in all birth-weight-centile groups below the 80th centile, after adjusting for confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: Birth-weight centile is associated positively with school performance at 12 years of age across the entire birth-weight spectrum, well beyond the conventional and arbitrary cut-offs for suspected fetal growth restriction. This underlines the importance of developing better tools to diagnose fetal growth restriction and reduced placental function, and to identify those at risk for associated short- and long-term consequences. © 2023 The Authors. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Longitudinal associations between early childhood irritability and adolescent depression symptoms in autistic children are mediated by peer relationships but not educational engagement.

In the general population, irritability is associated with later depression. Despite irritability being more prevalent in autistic children, the long-term sequelae are not well explored. We tested whether irritability in early childhood predicted depression symptoms in autistic adolescents, and whether associations could be explained by difficulties in peer relationships and lower educational engagement. Analyses tested the longitudinal associations between early childhood irritability (ages 3-5) and adolescent depression symptoms (age 14) in a prospective inception cohort of autistic children (N = 390), followed from early in development shortly after they received a clinical diagnosis. Mediators were measured in mid-childhood (age 10) by a combination of measures, from which latent factors for peer relationships and educational engagement were estimated. Results showed early childhood irritability was positively associated with adolescent depression symptoms, and this association remained when adjusting for baseline depression. A significant indirect pathway through peer relationships was found, which accounted for around 13% of the association between early childhood irritability and adolescent depression, suggesting peer problems may partially mediate the association between irritability and later depression. No mediation effects were found for education engagement. Results highlight the importance of early screening and intervention for co-occurring irritability and peer problems in young autistic children.

Low education and mental health among older adults: the mediating role of employment and income.

PURPOSE: Transition from work to retirement may be associated with poor mental health outcomes in older-age groups, especially among those of lower socio-economic position (SEP). This study investigates the association between low educational achievement and mental health status, and the mediating role of employment status and income level among older-age Australians. METHODS: This study was based on the '45 and Up Study', a prospective cohort study of participants from New South Wales (Australia) aged 45 years and older (N = 267,153), followed-up over the period 2006-2018. A causal mediation analysis was used to assess the total causal effect (TCE) of educational achievement level on psychological distress, and the extent of mediation by employment status and income level. RESULTS: Lower educational achievement was associated with subsequent psychological distress, with a stronger TCE among those with low educational achievement (OR = 1.46, 95% CI 1.25-1.72), followed by those with intermediate educational achievement (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.07-1.48), compared to those with high educational achievement. In models investigating mediation by employment status and income level, 44.7%, (95% CI 34.2-55.3) of the association was mediated by employment status and income level, with a stronger mediating effect evident for income level. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that employment status and income level changes at older age are more strongly associated with poorer mental health among those of lower SEP. Poor mental health associated with lower SEP may be ameliorated particularly by changes to income level, but also how people transition from employment to retirement.

Adolescents' perceptions of family social status correlate with health and life chances: A twin difference longitudinal cohort study.

Children from lower-income households are at increased risk for poor health, educational failure, and behavioral problems. This social gradient is one of the most reproduced findings in health and social science. How people view their position in social hierarchies also signals poor health. However, when adolescents' views of their social position begin to independently relate to well-being is currently unknown. A cotwin design was leveraged to test whether adolescents with identical family backgrounds, but who viewed their family's social status as higher than their same-aged and sex sibling, experienced better well-being in early and late adolescence. Participants were members of the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study, a representative cohort of British twins (n = 2,232) followed across the first 2 decades of life. By late adolescence, perceptions of subjective family social status (SFSS) robustly correlated with multiple indicators of health and well-being, including depression; anxiety; conduct problems; marijuana use; optimism; not in education, employment, or training (NEET) status; and crime. Findings held controlling for objective socioeconomic status both statistically and by cotwin design after accounting for measures of childhood intelligence (IQ), negative affect, and prior mental health risk and when self-report, informant report, and administrative data were used. Little support was found for the biological embedding of adolescents' perceptions of familial social status as indexed by inflammatory biomarkers or cognitive tests in late adolescence or for SFSS in early adolescence as a robust correlate of well-being or predictor of future problems. Future experimental studies are required to test whether altering adolescents' subjective social status will lead to improved well-being and social mobility.

Sense of Belonging at School and on Social Media in Adolescence: Associations with Educational Achievement and Psychosocial Maladjustment.

Belongingness is a key factor in the psychological development and school adjustment of children and adolescents. Going beyond the existing literature, the present study evaluated the association between two sources of belongingness, namely sense of belonging at school (SOBAS) and on social media (SOBOSM), and both psychological maladjustment and educational achievement. Sample consisted of 698 early-to-late adolescents (52.3% female, mean age = 13.79 ± 2.09). Both SOBAS and SOBOSM showed negative direct associations with psychological maladjustment. SOBOSM showed a negative direct association with educational achievement. Social media addiction mediated the links between both SOBAS and SOBOSM and psychological maladjustment and education achievement. Overall, findings suggest that adolescents reporting high sense of belonging both at school and on social media may at lower risk for psychological maladjustment. However, adolescents reporting low SOBAS and high SOBOSM may also be a greater risk of SMA, possibly impacting their psychological health and school adjustement.

Psychological adaptation level optimization to attain the goal of sustainable education.

The article aimed to study the psychological adaptability of university students. Along with that, the influence of sports activities on enhancing the psychology of students is also examined. The study also analyzes the impact of music on the psychoogy of students. A two-factor model is used for analyzing the level of college students' mental health. In this study, data was collected from 555 first-year undergraduate university students through an online questionnaire survey. Levels of both positive and negative psychological factors among students are examined. The findings indicate that students who participate in sports appear to have higher levels of positive psychological characteristics than students who do not exhibit any interest in participating in sports. Additionally, students that participate in sports have lower levels of negative psychological effects than nonparticipants. As a result, the study concluded that sports and other physical activities have a positive effect on the psychology of university students. The advantages of physical activities and sports in enhancing the mental and emotional health of students are highlighted in this study. To improve students' psychology and attain better academic results, educational institutions should provide students with various opportunities for sports.

The nature-nurture of academic achievement at the intersection between gender, family background, and school context.

We investigate the role of gender, family SES, school SES, and their intersection in educational achievement using a twin design. Drawing on theories of gene-environment interaction, we test whether high-SES environments compensate genetic risks or enhance genetic potential, and its dependency on gender. Using data on 37,000 Danish twin and sibling pairs from population-wide administrative registers, we report three main findings. First, for family SES, but not for school SES, we find that genetic influences play a slightly smaller role in high-SES environments. Second, this relationship is moderated by child gender: in high-SES families, the genetic influence is considerably lower for boys than for girls. Third, the moderating effect of family SES for boys is almost entirely driven by children attending low-SES schools. Our findings thus point to significant heterogeneity in gene-environment interactions, highlighting the importance of considering the multiplicity of social contexts.

Associations between children's diagnosed mental disorders and educational achievements in Sweden.

AIMS: To examine associations between multiple clinically diagnosed mental disorders among children in Sweden and educational achievements at the end of ninth grade. METHODS: Data from Swedish administrative registers were utilised. Diagnoses of specific mental disorders (unipolar depression, mood, anxiety, obsessive compulsive, eating, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) were used as exposure variables. Educational achievements were assessed in terms of teacher-assigned school grades and eligibility for upper secondary education. The sample comprised 266,664 individuals (49% females) born in 2000 to 2002 who were alive and resident in Sweden in 2017. Exposed and unexposed individuals were compared in terms of outcome variables by fitting linear and logistic regression models. RESULTS: The results revealed negative associations between all the examined mental disorders and educational achievements, except for positive associations between eating disorders and grades among female students. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder was the most strongly associated disorder in terms of non-successful completion of compulsory education, among both male and female students (odds ratio (OR): 3.58 (95% confidence interval (CI), 3.42 to 3.74) and 4.31 (95% CI, 4.07 to 4.57), respectively). This was followed by unipolar depression among males (OR: 2.92 (95% CI, 2.60 to 3.28)) and anxiety disorder among females (OR: 2.68 (95% CI, 2.49 to 2.88)). Obsessive compulsive disorder had the weakest negative association with educational achievements among both males (OR: 1.48 (95% CI, 1.01 to 2.17)) and females (OR: 1.38 (95% CI, 1.11 to 1.72)). CONCLUSIONS: Specific diagnosed mental disorders have varying, largely disadvantageous, associations with educational achievements of students in Sweden that differ between males and females.

Socio-economic outcomes among long-term childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia survivors enrolled between 1971 and 1998 in EORTC CLG studies: Results of the 58LAE study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to evaluate the socio-economic outcomes of survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). METHODS: Childhood ALL adult survivors, enrolled in EORTC trials between 1971 and 1998 in France and Belgium, were invited to fill out a questionnaire with information about their socio-economic situation (living with a partner, having a university degree, having a job, working part time and history of having a paid job). The outcomes were compared with two matched control populations. RESULTS: Among 1418 eligible patients, 507 (35.8%) participated, including 39 (8%) and 61 (12%) patients who received a haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and a cranial radiotherapy (CRT), respectively. The median time to follow-up was 20 years, and median age was 25 years. Survivors showed a socio-economic level at least as good as controls. HCST and CRT were associated with a higher probability of not obtaining a bachelor degree (respectively OR = 3.49, 95% CI: 1.46-8.35 and OR = 2.31, 95% CI: 1.04-5.15), HSCT was associated with unemployment (OR = 2.89, 95% CI: 1.09-7.65) and having a relapse was associated with a higher probability of not having a partner (OR = 1.88, 95% CI: 1.01-3.51) adjusting for confounders. CONCLUSION: Childhood ALL survivors showed a high level of socio-economic participation. HCST and CRT were associated with poorer functioning.

School quality ratings are weak predictors of students' achievement and well-being.

BACKGROUND: In England, all state-funded schools are inspected by an independent government agency, the Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted). Inspections aim to hold schools accountable and to promote the improvement of education, with the results made available to the public. Ofsted reports intend to index school quality, but their influence on students' individual outcomes has not been previously studied. The aim of the current study was to explore the extent to which school quality, as indexed by Ofsted ratings, is associated with students' educational achievement, well-being and school engagement. METHODS: We use an England population-based sample of 4,391 individuals, for whom school performance at age 11 and GCSE grades at age 16 were accessed from the National Pupil Database, and who completed measures of well-being and school engagement at age 16. RESULTS: We found that Ofsted ratings of secondary school quality accounted for 4% of the variance in students' educational achievement at age 16, which was further reduced to 1% of the variance after we accounted for prior school performance at age 11 and family socioeconomic status. Furthermore, Ofsted ratings were weak predictors of school engagement and student well-being, with an average correlation of .03. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that differences in school quality, as indexed by Ofsted ratings, have little relation to students' individual outcomes. Accordingly, our results challenge the usefulness of Ofsted ratings as guides for parents and students when choosing secondary schools.

The role of parental education on the relationship between gestational age and school outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Individuals born preterm may experience difficulties beyond the neonatal period, such as poorer school outcomes. However, whether these outcomes are modified by family factors is less well-known. OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether parental educational level modify the relationship of gestational age with completion of final examinations and grade point average in compulsory education. METHODS: This nationwide register-based cohort study included singletons born in Denmark during 1995-2001. We investigated the differences in the associations between gestational age (24-44 weeks) and two school outcomes at 16 years according to parental educational level (lower (≤10 years), intermediate (11-13 years), and higher (>13 years)). Mixed-effect logistic regression and mixed-effect linear regression were used to model completion of final examination and grade point average, respectively. RESULTS: Of the 425 101 singletons, 4.7% were born before 37 weeks. The risk of not completing final examination increased with shorter gestational age and lower parental educational level. For instance, among adolescents whose parents had a lower educational level, the risk increased from 23.9% (95% CI, 23.1, 24.6) for those born in week 40 to 36.6% (95% CI, 31.5, 42.1) for those born in week 28. For adolescents whose parents had a higher educational level, the corresponding risk increase was 5.9% (95% CI, 5.7, 6.1) to 10.5% (95% CI, 8.6, 12.8), respectively. Grade point average decreased with shorter gestational age in adolescents born before 30 weeks and with lower parental educational level. The associations between gestational age and grade point average were similar across parental educational levels. For completions of final examination, the associations with gestational age were weaker with higher parental educational level. CONCLUSIONS: Shorter gestational age and lower parental educational level were associated with poorer school outcomes. Our findings suggest that parental educational level mitigates the adverse effects of shorter gestational age on some school outcomes.

School readiness screening and educational achievement at 9-10 years of age.

AIM: To determine whether a multi-domain school readiness screening, the Before School Check (B4SC), identifies children at risk of low educational achievement and to compare the educational outcomes between those referred for intervention and those with B4SC concerns who were not referred. METHODS: In this longitudinal cohort study of children born at risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia (N 331), the B4SC was performed at 4.5 years of age and a standardised curriculum-based measure of educational achievement was completed at 9-10 years of age. Outcomes of school readiness screening were categorised into 'school readiness concern' or 'no school readiness concern' while 'below standard' and 'well below standard' ratings of educational achievement were combined into a single category of 'low educational achievement'. RESULTS: Overall, 52% of children had ≥1 school readiness concerns at the B4SC, predominantly about behaviour (46%). Having ≥1 school readiness concern was associated with a nearly twofold increase in the likelihood of low academic achievement (OR 1.85, 95% CI 1.14, 3.02), which was apparent only for behaviour concerns. Of the 128 children with behaviour concerns, only 10 (8%) were referred for further interventions. There was a statistically non-significant increase in the rates of low academic achievement among those referred than those non-referred (60% vs. 47%). CONCLUSION: Identification of behaviour concerns during B4SC is associated with a moderate increase in the likelihood of low academic achievement at 9-10 years. Further, research is needed to determine how academic achievement can be improved in children with behaviour concerns at school entry.

Birth by caesarean section and educational achievement in adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Birth by caesarean section has been shown to alter the composition of the early infant gut microbiota and postulated to influence cognitive outcomes via the gut-brain axis. AIMS: To determine whether birth by caesarean section is associated with secondary school educational achievement. METHODS: Whole-population administrative data were used from anonymised individual level linkage of birth records to educational and health information from the New Zealand Integrated Data Infrastructure (IDI). Participants were 111 843 children born between 1 January 1996 and 31 December 1998 for whom mode of delivery information was available from International Classification of Diseases 9th edition codes in maternal records. The National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) is the main secondary school qualification undertaken by New Zealand students. Multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the association between mode of delivery and educational achievement. A family fixed effect analysis compared educational achievement outcomes in sibling pairs where one sibling was delivered by caesarean section and one delivered vaginally. RESULTS: After adjustment for potential confounders, there was no significant association between mode of delivery and achievement of university entrance (odds ratio = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.94-1.02). NCEA percentile scores were lower in caesarean born infants (Estimate = -0.37, 95% CI: -0.69 to -0.06)). However, in the fixed effect sibling analysis caesarean section was no longer significantly associated with NCEA percentile scores. CONCLUSIONS: We find that caesarean section is not related to educational outcomes, suggesting that even if the infant gut microbiota is altered in caesarean section, it does not appear to have a measurable impact on adolescent academic achievement.

Prospective associations with physiological, psychosocial and educational outcomes of meeting Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years.

BACKGROUND: Several countries have released movement guidelines for children under 5 that incorporate guidelines for sleep, physical activity and sedentary behavior. This study examines prospective associations of preschool children's compliance with the 24-Hour Australian movement guidelines (sleep, physical activity, screen time) and physiological, psychosocial and educational outcomes during primary school. METHODS: Data were from the Healthy Active Preschool and Primary Years Study (Melbourne, Australia; n = 471; 3-5 years; 2008/9). Follow-ups occurred at 3 (2011/12; 6-8 years), 6 (2014/15; 9-11 years) and 7 (2016; 10-12 years) years post baseline. Multiple regression models assessed associations between compliance with guidelines at baseline and later outcomes. RESULTS: Children were 4.6 years at baseline (53% boys; 62% high socio-economic families). Most children met physical activity (89%) and sleep (93%) guidelines; 23% met screen-time guidelines; and 20% met all guidelines at baseline. Meeting all of the three guidelines was associated with lower BMI z-scores at 9-11 years of age (b = - 0.26, 95%CI -0.47, - 0.05). Meeting physical activity guidelines was associated with higher total body bone mineral density (b = 0.64, 95%CI 0.15, 1.13), and total body bone mineral content (b = 183.19, 95%CI 69.92, 296.46) at 10-12 years of age. Meeting sleep guidelines was associated with better reading (b = 37.60, 95%CI 6.74, 68.46), spelling (b = 34.95, 95%CI 6.65, 63.25), numeracy (b = 39.09, 95%CI 11.75, 66.44), language (b = 44.31, 95%CI 11.77, 76.85) and writing (b = 25.93, 95%CI 0.30, 51.57) at 8-9 years of age. No associations were evident for compliance with screen-time guidelines or for psychosocial outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Compliance with different movement behavior guidelines was associated with different outcomes. Strategies to support children in meeting all of the guidelines are warranted to maximize health and educational outcomes. Future research investigating dose-response associations, and potential mechanisms, is necessary.

Predicting educational achievement from genomic measures and socioeconomic status.

The two best predictors of children's educational achievement available from birth are parents' socioeconomic status (SES) and, recently, children's inherited DNA differences that can be aggregated in genome-wide polygenic scores (GPS). Here, we chart for the first time the developmental interplay between these two predictors of educational achievement at ages 7, 11, 14 and 16 in a sample of almost 5,000 UK school children. We show that the prediction of educational achievement from both GPS and SES increases steadily throughout the school years. Using latent growth curve models, we find that GPS and SES not only predict educational achievement in the first grade but they also account for systematic changes in achievement across the school years. At the end of compulsory education at age 16, GPS and SES, respectively, predict 14% and 23% of the variance of educational achievement. Analyses of the extremes of GPS and SES highlight their influence and interplay: In children who have high GPS and come from high SES families, 77% go to university, whereas 21% of children with low GPS and from low SES backgrounds attend university. We find that the associations of GPS and SES with educational achievement are primarily additive, suggesting that their joint influence is particularly dramatic for children at the extreme ends of the distribution.

Educational and criminal justice outcomes 12 years after school suspension.

A third of US students are suspended over a K-12 school career. Suspended youth have worse adult outcomes than non-suspended students, but these outcomes could be due to selection bias: that is, suspended youth may have had worse outcomes even without suspension. This study compares the educational and criminal justice outcomes of 480 youth suspended for the first time with those of 1193 matched non-suspended youth from a nationally representative sample. Prior to suspension, the suspended and non-suspended youth did not differ on 60 pre-suspension variables including students' self-reported delinquency and risk behaviors, parents' reports of socioeconomic status, and administrators' reports of school disciplinary policies. Twelve years after suspension (ages 25-32), suspended youth were less likely than matched non-suspended youth to have earned bachelors degrees or high school diplomas, and were more likely to have been arrested and on probation, suggesting that suspension rather than selection bias explains negative outcomes.

Lifestyle habits and academy performance amongst forcibly displaced students: A cross-sectional survey in a school of dentistry.

INTRODUCTION: There is no recognised investigation examining the influence of some lifestyle comportments on academic performance (AP) in forcibly displaced students in higher education. Thus, the frequency of physical inactivity (PI), insufficient sleep (IS), alcohol consumption (AC), drug consumption (DC) and cigarette smoking (CS) and the independent and combined consequences of these habits on AP in forcibly displaced dental students were investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A sample of 185 students was studied (thirty-seven forcibly displaced and 148 non-displaced students). This cross-sectional study used an institutional administrative database that included students' demographic features and lifestyle behaviours. Multivariate analyses were performed to evaluate the independent and combined effects of lifestyle behaviours on AP. RESULTS: PI, IS, AC, DC and CS were observed in 51%, 43%, 83%, 27% and 16% of forcibly displaced students, respectively. Compared with non-displaced students, forcibly displaced students presented higher frequencies for all of these behaviours (P < .05), lower AP (P < .0001) and lower socio-economic status (P = .003). Unadjusted regression models showed independent and significant associations between forcibly displaced students and PI (P = .01), IS (P = .01), AC (P = .01), DC (P < .0001), CS (P = .02) and low AP (P = .006). The multivariate model for AP and forcibly displaced students increased odds by 4.6 times (1.5-11; 95% CI). Moreover, the lifestyle comportments studied were also statistically significant, showing combined effects. The variables of gender and age were not statistically significant in the adjusted model. CONCLUSIONS: This research observed high frequencies of the behaviours analysed in forcibly displaced students. Furthermore, independent and combined effects of them on AP were detected.