The serotonin transporter undergoes constitutive internalization and is primarily sorted to late endosomes and lysosomal degradation.

The serotonin transporter (SERT) plays a critical role in regulating serotonin signaling by mediating reuptake of serotonin from the extracellular space. The molecular and cellular mechanisms controlling SERT levels in the membrane remain poorly understood. To study trafficking of the surface resident SERT, two functional epitope-tagged variants were generated. Fusion of a FLAG-tagged one-transmembrane segment protein Tac to the SERT N terminus generated a transporter with an extracellular epitope suited for trafficking studies (TacSERT). Likewise, a construct with an extracellular antibody epitope was generated by introducing an HA (hemagglutinin) tag in the extracellular loop 2 of SERT (HA-SERT). By using TacSERT and HA-SERT in antibody-based internalization assays, we show that SERT undergoes constitutive internalization in a dynamin-dependent manner. Confocal images of constitutively internalized SERT demonstrated that SERT primarily co-localized with the late endosomal/lysosomal marker Rab7, whereas little co-localization was observed with the Rab11, a marker of the "long loop" recycling pathway. This sorting pattern was distinct from that of a prototypical recycling membrane protein, the ß2-adrenergic receptor. Furthermore, internalized SERT co-localized with the lysosomal marker LysoTracker and not with transferrin. The sorting pattern was further confirmed by visualizing internalization of SERT using the fluorescent cocaine analog JHC1-64 and by reversible and pulse-chase biotinylation assays showing evidence for lysosomal degradation of the internalized transporter. Finally, we found that SERT internalized in response to stimulation with 12-myristate 13-acetate co-localized primarily with Rab7- and LysoTracker-positive compartments. We conclude that SERT is constitutively internalized and that the internalized transporter is sorted mainly to degradation.

α4ßδ GABA(A) receptors are high-affinity targets for γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB).

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) binding to brain-specific high-affinity sites is well-established and proposed to explain both physiological and pharmacological actions. However, the mechanistic links between these lines of data are unknown. To identify molecular targets for specific GHB high-affinity binding, we undertook photolinking studies combined with proteomic analyses and identified several GABA(A) receptor subunits as possible candidates. A subsequent functional screening of various recombinant GABA(A) receptors in Xenopus laevis oocytes using the two-electrode voltage clamp technique showed GHB to be a partial agonist at αßδ- but not αßγ-receptors, proving that the δ-subunit is essential for potency and efficacy. GHB showed preference for α4 over α(1,2,6)-subunits and preferably activated α4ß1δ (EC(50) = 140 nM) over α4ß(2/3)δ (EC(50) = 8.41/1.03 mM). Introduction of a mutation, α4F71L, in α4ß1(δ)-receptors completely abolished GHB but not GABA function, indicating nonidentical binding sites. Radioligand binding studies using the specific GHB radioligand [(3)H](E,RS)-(6,7,8,9-tetrahydro-5-hydroxy-5H-benzocyclohept-6-ylidene)acetic acid showed a 39% reduction (P = 0.0056) in the number of binding sites in α4 KO brain tissue compared with WT controls, corroborating the direct involvement of the α4-subunit in high-affinity GHB binding. Our data link specific GHB forebrain binding sites with α4-containing GABA(A) receptors and postulate a role for extrasynaptic α4δ-containing GABA(A) receptors in GHB pharmacology and physiology. This finding will aid in elucidating the molecular mechanisms behind the proposed function of GHB as a neurotransmitter and its unique therapeutic effects in narcolepsy and alcoholism.

Radiosynthesis and Evaluation of [11C]3-Hydroxycyclopent-1-enecarboxylic Acid as Potential PET Ligand for the High-Affinity γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid Binding Sites.

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is an endogenous neuroactive substance and proposed neurotransmitter with affinity for both low- and high-affinity binding sites. A radioligand with high and specific affinity toward the high-affinity GHB binding site would be a unique tool toward a more complete understanding of this population of binding sites. With its high specific affinity and monocarboxylate transporter (MCT1) mediated transport across the blood-brain barrier in pharmacological doses, 3-hydroxycyclopent-1-enecarboxylic acid (HOCPCA) seems like a suitable PET radiotracer candidate. Here, we report the 11C-labeling and subsequent evaluation of [11C]HOCPCA in a domestic pig, as a PET-radioligand for visualization of the high-affinity GHB binding sites in the live pig brain. To investigate the regional binding of HOCPCA in pig brain prior to in vivo PET studies, in vitro quantitative autoradiography on sections of pig brain was performed using [3H]HOCPCA. In vivo evaluation of [11C]HOCPCA showed no brain uptake, possibly due to a limited uptake of HOCPCA by the MCT1 transporter at tracer doses of [11C]HOCPCA.

GHB receptor targets in the CNS: focus on high-affinity binding sites.

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is an endogenous compound in the mammalian brain with both low- and high-affinity receptor targets. GHB is used clinically in the treatment of symptoms of narcolepsy and alcoholism, but also illicitly abused as the recreational drug Fantasy. Major pharmacological effects of exogenous GHB are mediated by GABA subtype B (GABAB) receptors that bind GHB with low affinity. The existence of GHB high-affinity binding sites has been known for more than three decades, but the uncovering of their molecular identity has only recently begun. This has been prompted by the generation of molecular tools to selectively study high-affinity sites. These include both genetically modified GABAB knock-out mice and engineered selective GHB ligands. Recently, certain GABA subtype A (GABAA) receptor subtypes emerged as high-affinity GHB binding sites and potential physiological mediators of GHB effects. In this research update, a description of the various reported receptors for GHB is provided, including GABAB receptors, certain GABAA receptor subtypes and other reported GHB receptors. The main focus will thus be on the high-affinity binding targets for GHB and their potential functional roles in the mammalian brain.

Positive allosteric modulation of the GHB high-affinity binding site by the GABAA receptor modulator monastrol and the flavonoid catechin.

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a metabolite of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and a proposed neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain. We recently identified α4ßδ GABAA receptors as possible high-affinity GHB targets. GABAA receptors are highly sensitive to allosteric modulation. Thus to investigate whether GHB high-affinity binding sites are also sensitive to allosteric modulation, we screened both known GABAA receptor ligands and a library of natural compounds in the rat cortical membrane GHB specific high-affinity [3H]NCS-382 binding assay. Two hits were identified: Monastrol, a positive allosteric modulator of GABA function at δ-containing GABAA receptors, and the naturally occurring flavonoid catechin. These compounds increased [3H]NCS-382 binding to 185-272% in high micromolar concentrations. Monastrol and (+)-catechin significantly reduced [3H]NCS-382 dissociation rates and induced conformational changes in the binding site, demonstrating a positive allosteric modulation of radioligand binding. Surprisingly, binding of [3H]GHB and the GHB high-affinity site-specific radioligands [125I]BnOPh-GHB and [3H]HOCPCA was either decreased or only weakly increased, indicating that the observed modulation was critically probe-dependent. Both monastrol and (+)-catechin were agonists at recombinant α4ß3δ receptors expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. When monastrol and GHB were co-applied no changes were seen compared to the individual responses. In summary, we have identified the compounds monastrol and catechin as the first allosteric modulators of GHB high-affinity binding sites. Despite their relatively weak affinity, these compounds may aid in further characterization of the GHB high-affinity sites that are likely to represent certain GABAA receptors.

New synthesis and tritium labeling of a selective ligand for studying high-affinity γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) binding sites.

3-Hydroxycyclopent-1-enecarboxylic acid (HOCPCA, 1) is a potent ligand for the high-affinity GHB binding sites in the CNS. An improved synthesis of 1 together with a very efficient synthesis of [(3)H]-1 is described. The radiosynthesis employs in situ generated lithium trimethoxyborotritide. Screening of 1 against different CNS targets establishes a high selectivity, and we demonstrate in vivo brain penetration. In vitro characterization of [(3)H]-1 binding shows high specificity to the high-affinity GHB binding sites.

A single nucleotide polymorphism in the human serotonin transporter introduces a new site for N-linked glycosylation.

The human serotonin transporter (hSERT) is responsible for reuptake of serotonin (5-HT) from the synaptic cleft and is target for antidepressant medicine. Differential hSERT activity caused by genetic polymorphisms is believed to affect the risk of developing depression and, moreover, to affect the response to antidepressant therapy. The hSERT contains in the second extracellular loop (EL2) two sites for N-linked glycosylation that are critical for functional transporter expression. Here we examine a non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in EL2 that gives rise to a potential third glycosylation site due to substitution of a lysine at position 201 with an asparagine (K201N). In agreement with introduction of an additional glycosylation site, western blot analysis showed migration of hSERT K201N corresponding to a higher molecular weight than wild type hSERT upon expression in both HEK293 cells and primary cultures of cortical neurons. An increase in molecular weight was not observed after removal of glycans with peptide N-glycosidase F (PNGase F). Quantitative analysis of western blots indicated significantly increased total transporter expression ( approximately 30%) for hSERT K201N as compared to hSERT in both cell systems. The increase in expression was accompanied by corresponding significant increases in the number of [(3)H]citalopram binding sites and in the V(max) for [(3)H]5-HT uptake. Characterization of mutants carrying all possible combinations of glycosylation sites demonstrated clear correlation between the number of glycosylation sites and the level of transporter activity, and showed that K201N could substitute for either one of the two original glycosylation sites.