Associative learning modifies startle reflexes at the lateral lemniscus.

Acoustic and electrical brain stimulation studies have revealed that the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus is a specific site within the brain stem where a previously conditioned stimulus modulates a simple reflex, the acoustic startle response. Sixty rats were implanted with bilateral electrodes in the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN), ventral acoustic stria (VAS), dorsal lateral lemniscus (DLL), ventral lateral lemniscus (VLL), or the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis (RPC). Following recovery all rats were conditioned to be fearful of a light by pairing a light with a shock for 10 trials on each of 2 days. One day later, the rats were placed in cages equipped to measure startle responses. Startle was elicited either acoustically or electrically through the electrodes that had been implanted in various parts of the acoustic startle circuit. Startle was elicited in darkness or during a brief presentation of the ligh previously paired with the shock. In all groups, acoustic startle amplitude was significantly greater in the presence of the light than it was in darkness, which is consistent with previous data showing that fear increases startle. Startle elicited electrically from the VCN, VAS, and VLL was also significantly increased by the light. In contrast, startle elicited electrically in the DLL or the RPC was not affected by the light despite the fact that the same rats in the same test session had elevated acoustic startle amplitude in the presence of light. Thus, it seems that for the first time in a complex vertebrate, a locus has been found within the nervous system (the VLL) where a conditioned stimulus acts to alter neural transmission so as to affect behavior.

Diazepam blocks fear-enhanced startle elicited electrically from the brainstem.

Startle-like responses were elicited electrically from the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) in darkness or in the presence of a light that had previously been paired with shocks. These startle-like responses were potentiated by the light and potentiation was selectively decreased by diazepam in a dose-related fashion (0.625 to 2.5 mg/kg). The benzodiazepine antagonist RO15-1788 attenuated the effect of diazepam. The data indicate that potentiation of electrically elicited startle behaves like acoustically elicited startle, providing further evidence that electrical elicitation of startle is a viable experimental technique.

The effects of age and attention upon reflex inhibition.

Previous research has suggested that reflex amplitude may be influenced by the direction of attention. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effects of an attention-demanding visual reaction time task upon the elicitation of reflexes and modification of reflexes by an antecedent prestimulus in young and elderly adults. In young subjects, eyeblink inhibition was augmented by the task, yet there was no effect upon overall reflex amplitude. Elderly subjects showed no effect upon reflex inhibition while overall reflex amplitude was diminished by the task, independent of the amount of inhibition. In young subjects, the prestimulus also accentuated the initial decelerative component of a biphasic heart rate response. The reaction time task also served to augment this deceleration. The elderly heart rate response was not affected by the experimental conditions. These results provide evidence that reflex inhibition is modulated by attention. However, the relationship is complex, developmentally sensitive, and involves generalized attentive processes as well as selective attention toward specific stimuli or sensory modalities.

Evaluation and long-term treatment of aberrant behavior displayed by young children with disabilities.

We trained parents to conduct functional analyses and functional communication treatment for 28 young children with developmental disabilities who displayed aberrant behavior. Of this sample, 22 parents conducted treatment for at least 3 months and 11 for 1 year. We conducted single-case analyses of the results of assessment and treatment. The functional analysis identified social functions (positive and negative reinforcement) for 86% (24 of 28) of the children. Treatment resulted in a pre/post decrease in aberrant behavior averaging 87% across the range of children, with the greatest decrease occurring at 3 months. Appropriate social responding increased, on average, by 69% across the range of children. Decreases in aberrant behavior were demonstrated in all children, and all except one child displayed increased social behavior during treatment. On a measure of parent-rated treatment acceptability, ranging from 1 (not at all acceptable) to 7 (very acceptable), the average overall acceptability was 6.35.

A demonstration of generalization of performance across settings, materials, and motor responses for students with profound mental retardation.

A treatment package, consisting of multiple exemplar training and community-based instruction, was evaluated for its effectiveness in teaching four students with profound mental retardation and multiple disabilities to participate in two sets of community-living tasks. All training took place in community settings, and each student demonstrated improved performance on at least one task set. In addition, all students demonstrated improved performance on a series of tasks selected to assess generalization of performance across settings, materials, and/or motoric responses required to complete the target task. Maintenance of performance over a 4- to 5-month period was assessed and achieved for two of the students. The results of this investigation are discussed in terms of the implications for programming for students with profound mental retardation.

Evaluation of tactile prompts with a student who is deaf, blind, and mentally retarded.

We provided tactile cues to a student who was deaf, blind, and mentally retarded to guide her performance on a variety of packaging tasks. The student had previously received extensive training on multiple packaging and sequencing tasks through her vocational education program. Although she was able to complete these tasks, each change in materials necessitated that similar levels of retraining be conducted in order for her to perform revised tasks. Tactile cues were introduced and evaluated through a multiple baseline with sequential withdrawal design for two envelope-stuffing tasks and one bagging task. Results indicated that the tactile prompts were effective in guiding her performance on the training task and in promoting generalization to novel tasks and cues. Continued use of the cues was necessary to maintain the student's performance. Our findings suggest that tactile prompts function similarly to picture prompts and may be an effective alternative external prompting system for persons for whom picture prompts would not be appropriate.

Effects of picture prompts on the acquisition of complex vocational tasks by mentally retarded adolescents.

The effects of using picture prompts on the acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of complex vocational tasks were evaluated within a multiple baseline design across subjects and tasks. Five moderately and severely mentally retarded adolescents were first trained to use picture prompts to guide their performance on one or more complex tasks. Following training, posttesting with and without the picture prompts was conducted to evaluate the effects of training and to determine maintenance effects over a 2- to 4-week interval. Generalization of performance across tasks was assessed with three of the students who were provided novel tasks (with and without picture prompts) without training. Results indicated that picture prompts can be successfully used to promote both acquisition and generalization of performance, and that subsequent training time on a novel task was reduced when the use of picture prompts had been previously trained.

Training students with profound or multiple handicaps to make requests via microswitches.

In a series of three experiments, we evaluated the use of microswitches as a means for students with profound, multiple handicaps to demonstrate preferences between toys and to make requests for specific activities. In Experiment 1, 5 students learned to demonstrate toy preferences by using microswitches to activate battery-operated toys. Experiment 2 was conducted to evaluate the students' preferences for social attention. Microswitches were used to activate prerecorded messages that signaled the classroom teacher to attend to the students. In Experiment 3, the students used the switches and prerecorded messages to make specific requests of educational staff in school and community settings. Results of these experiments, evaluated within multiple baseline, alternating treatments, and simultaneous treatments designs, indicated that these students could request specific activities. Results are discussed with respect to the continued use of microswitches and to program development.

Evaluation of the generalized effects of a peer-training procedure with moderately retarded adolescents.

The use of peer-training procedures by moderately mentally retarded adolescents was evaluated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 2 students received instruction on peer-training skills to teach a vocational task to 7 classmates. Following instruction, both peer trainers were successful in teaching their classmates to perform the target task and a second untrained (generalization) task. In Experiment 2, 1 peer trainer taught 3 peers to use picture prompts to complete one or two complex vocational tasks. Following instruction by the peer trainer, the trainees independently used novel pictures on novel tasks. The results of both experiments indicate that peer training with moderately handicapped students can be an effective instructional procedure, with generalization occurring for both the trainers (Experiment 1) and the trainees (Experiment 2).

Generalization and maintenance of complex skills by severely handicapped adolescents following picture prompt training.

Three severely handicapped adolescents were trained, using a picture prompt package, to complete three complex vocational or daily living tasks. Results indicated that all students required many training sessions to learn the first training task. Following initial training, however, all students generalized their use of the pictures across settings without additional training. The students also needed substantially reduced amounts of training on the remaining two tasks. During maintenance, two of the students continued to perform at relatively high levels of accuracy with and without the picture prompts, whereas one student continued to need the pictures.

The effects of presession exposure to attention on the results of assessments of attention as a reinforcer.

The effects of presession exposure to attention on responding during subsequent assessments of attention as a reinforcer were evaluated across three behavioral assessments. In Experiment 1, a contingent attention assessment condition was preceded by either a noncontingent attention condition (free play) or a contingent escape condition. In Experiment 2, a diverted attention with extinction condition was preceded by either an alone or a free-play condition. In Experiment 3, a two-choice preference assessment was preceded by either 10 min of free play or 10 min of playing alone. In each experiment, the participant responded differentially within the test condition according to the presence or absence of dense schedules of attention immediately prior to that condition. The results of this study show that events occurring immediately prior to an assessment condition can influence behavior within the assessment.

The use of behavioral assessment to prescribe and evaluate treatments for severely handicapped children.

Behavioral assessment procedures were used to prescribe and evaluate treatments of maladaptive behavior for 2 children with severe multiple handicaps. In Experiment 1, the results of an assessment of reinforcer preference were used in conjunction with a functional analysis of the conditions maintaining self-injurious behavior to prescribe a treatment for a child with severe disabilities. The treatment procedure involved the use of a pressure-sensitive microswitch to activate reinforcing stimuli during two solitary conditions, during which self-injurious behavior had occurred at high rates. The results were evaluated with a multiple baseline across settings design and indicated that self-injury decreased with concomitant increases in microswitch activation. Results were maintained at 6 weeks, 8 weeks, and 6 months. In Experiment 2, the results of behavioral assessments of reinforcer preference and self-injurious behavior were combined to develop a treatment for a second severely handicapped child, who exhibited high rates of self-injury in demand situations. This treatment was evaluated with a multiple baseline across tasks design and resulted in the elimination of self-injury for up to 15 months.

Supported employment as an intervention package: a preliminary analysis of functional variables.

In this two-experiment investigation, the long-term (at least 6 months) employment of 51 moderately mentally retarded clients who were placed into 64 supported employment positions was first evaluated relative to 10 training and posttraining components that comprised a supported employment training package. In Experiment 1, chi-square analyses were used to identify three components that differentiated successful (employed for at least 6 months) from unsuccessful clients. In Experiment 2, 4 successful clients were further evaluated in a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design to determine whether the three variables identified during the group analysis (client advocate, collateral behavior, and follow-up plan) were included in the training packages. These results are discussed in terms of the need to establish better the functional variables of supported employment training programs.

Evaluation of antecedent stimulus parameters for the treatment of escape-maintained aberrant behavior.

We evaluated a methodology for identifying the range of stimulus features of antecedent stimuli associated with aberrant behavior in demand contexts in natural settings. For each participant, an experimental analysis of antecedents (Phase 1) was conducted to confirm the hypothesis that task instructions occasioned increases in aberrant behavior. During Phase 2, specific stimulus features associated with the presentation of task instructions were assessed by evaluating the child's behavior across two distinct settings, therapists, and types of tasks in a sequential fashion. Aberrant behavior occurred immediately across settings and therapists, presumably because the presence of a discriminative stimulus for escape-maintained behavior (the delivery of a task instruction) occasioned aberrant behavior. However, aberrant behavior decreased initially across tasks, suggesting that familiarity with the task might be a variable. During Phase 3, an experimental (functional) analysis of consequences was conducted with 2 participants to verify that aberrant behavior was maintained by negative reinforcement. During Phase 4, a treatment package that interspersed play with task instructions was conducted to disrupt the ongoing occurrence of aberrant behavior. Immediate and durable treatment effects occurred for 2 of the 3 participants.

Analysis of response class hierarchies with attention-maintained problem behaviors.

We replicated a method for clarifying inconclusive functional analysis outcomes via an extinction analysis of separate topographies of problem behavior with 2 participants. Results suggested that both mild and severe problem behaviors belonged to the same response class. An analysis of response latency was consistent with a response class hierarchy hypothesis, indicating that mild problem behavior nearly always occurred prior to severe topographies of problem behavior.

The treatment of severe behavior problems in school settings using a technical assistance model.

We evaluated the feasibility of local school personnel conducting functional analysis and reinforcement-based treatment procedures within actual classroom settings. Following an initial in-service workshop on functional assessment and differential reinforcement procedures, on-site technical assistance was provided two to four times per month to local school personnel working in transdisciplinary teams. Overall results suggest that local school personnel were able to implement all procedures adequately with periodic technical assistance. In addition, functional analysis was effective in identifying individual maintaining contingencies, the derived treatments were effective, and the results were maintained throughout the approximate 18 months of this investigation.

Using pretreatment and posttreatment assessments to enhance and evaluate existing treatment packages.

Pretreatment assessment data were used to enhance an existing treatment package to reduce aggression and to increase positive social interactions between a young boy and his peers. Based on the results of pretreatment assessments, additional reinforcement (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior with adult attention) and punishment (performing a nonpreferred task during time-out) components were added to an existing nonresetting differential reinforcement of other behavior (access to peers unless aggression occurred) plus time-out procedure. A posttreatment component analysis of the additional treatment components indicated that the reinforcement component facilitated positive social interactions and the punishment component suppressed aggression towards peers.

Evaluation of reinforcer preferences for profoundly handicapped students.

Five students classified as profoundly/multiply handicapped were trained to use microswitches to indicate reinforcer preferences. The students were trained to emit a designated motoric response (raise arm or raise head) which in turn activated a microswitch. The microswitches were connected to battery-operated toys and devices, and served to provide immediate, contingent consequences to the students for their motoric responding. The results of the investigation were evaluated within a multiple baseline (across students) with alternating treatments (potential reinforcers) design. During baseline, the students were provided with the switches and devices, but the switches were not connected to the devices. During the training conditions, the switches activated the devices. Evaluation of the devices was conducted by recording the cumulative frequency and duration of the students' responses. When the microswitches activated the devices during training, a substantial increase in the duration of motoric responding occurred for all students. In addition, some students performed differentially across devices, suggesting that they had reinforcer preferences.

Teaching selected microcomputer skills to retarded students via picture prompts.

Five retarded students were taught to use picture prompts to help them access and terminate a microcomputer program. Training was provided within a multiple baseline format. Posttesting (picture prompts without feedback), and a return to baseline were later conducted for both the training program and an untrained (generalization) program. The results indicate that the program was successful in teaching the microcomputer skills to the students. In addition, all students were able to maintain their skills over a 7-day interval in which they did not have access to the microcomputer.

The impact of functional analysis methodology on outpatient clinic services.

The impact of the article by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982) on research in severe behavior disorders has been impressive. Equally impressive, however, but not as fully recognized, has been the impact of this methodology on the routine professional activities of those who employ functional analysis methods in their daily work. As one example of this impact, we describe the evolution of assessment procedures based on "brief functional analysis" methodology in our outpatient clinics. Less apparent have been the collateral effects that occur from using these procedures. Interactions with clients and colleagues have changed in ways that result in increased positive reinforcement. In this article, we briefly discuss the positive impact functional analysis has had on one specific work behavior--outpatient clinic assessment--and describe some of the generalized effects we have experienced in related aspects of our daily professional activities.