Temporal Variations in Plankton Communities and Environmental Factors in the Shipra, a Central Himalayan Tributary of the Kosi River in Uttarakhand, India.

The essential role of smaller streams and tributaries indigenous to the area is crucial in revitalizing and restoring the main river system. The present study unraveled the relationship between plankton communities and environmental variables in the Shipra River, a Central Himalayan tributary of the Kosi River in Uttarakhand, India. Plankton distribution, abundance, and presence were investigated at four locations: upstream (S1 and S2) and downstream (S3 and S4). Forty-eight genera of phytoplankton and zooplankton have been identified belonging to ten classes (Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Zygnematophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Euglenopyceae, Protozoa, Rotifers, Copepoda, Cladocera, and Insecta) based on the findings. Winter was dominated by phytoplankton (Navicula spp., Nitzchia spp., Diatom spp.); summer and monsoon by zooplankton (Daphnia spp., Cyclops spp., Keratella spp., Brachionus spp.). Plankton communities of the tributary were assessed using diversity indices (Shannon-Weiner's index (H), Simpson's diversity index (1-D), and Evenness Index (E)). Seasonal variations in water temperature, specific conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and ammonium ions were found to be statistically significant (p<0.05). Canonical Correspondence Analysis, K-dominance plots, cluster analysis, and NMDS analysis showed the dynamic nature of the plankton communities with seasonal physiochemical variations in the unexplored Himalayan tributary. The plankton communities exhibited significant temporal fluctuations with physicochemical factors.

Clinical signs, lethal dose and histopathological lesions in grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella experimentally infected with Edwardsiella tarda.

An experiment was conducted to study the lethal dose (LD50-96h) and histopathological changes occurring in several organs of grass carp challenged with different concentrations of Edwardsiella tarda. The healthy grass carps were challenged with the bacterial suspension of 106,107, 108, 109 and 1010 CFU ml-1. The study demonstrated that the lethal dose (LD50-96h) of E. tarda for grass carp is 1.3 × 109 CFU ml-1. The infected fish showed abnormal swimming behavior, slower movements, skin necrosis, hemorrhages, and open lesion on the fontanelle of the frontal bone of the skull during the initial phase of infection. About 60% of the fish which received the bacterial suspension of 1010 CFU ml-1 died within 24 h of infection. The histopathological examination of the infected tissue section demonstrated the severe damages in the internal organs. In gills, oedema, secondary lamellae fusion, and hyperplasia of basal epithelial lining between secondary lamellae were reported. The microscopic observation showed the disruption of submucosa to the mucosa, which finally led to degenerative changes in the intestine, necrosis of hepatocytes and infiltration of red blood cells in the liver. The tubular disintegration in kidney and loss of capsular boundary of red pulp in spleen were also reported. In conclusion, the result indicates that the infection caused by E. tarda can cause severe damages and alterations in grass carp tissues and potential mass mortality. Moreover, The bacteria isolated from the mobribund fish was characterized by biochemical tests and expression of five critical virulence genes like citC, fimA, gadB, mukF and gyrB were detected from the microorganism. The study aims to provide a research foundation for further studies on the susceptibility and pathological changes of grass carp induced by E. tarda infection.

Anti-oomycetes and immunostimulatory activity of natural plant extract compounds against Saprolegnia spp.: Molecular docking and in-vitro studies.

This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of five natural plant extract compounds Curcumin (CUR); Eugenol (EUG), Cinnamaldehyde (CIN), Stigmasterol (ST) and Morin (MOR), on two species of Saprolegnia; Saprolegnia parasitica and S. australis. Selective compounds were screened for the minimum inhibitory concentration, first for anti-oomycetes activity and then mycelium growth inhibition, spore germination inhibition and colonisation test. Nitric oxide production and myeloperoxidase activity of the compounds were tested in head kidney leukocytes of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss to assess the immunostimulatory potential. Molecular docking of effective compounds was carried out with effector proteins of S. parasitica to investigate the target binding sites. Among all, CUR could completely inhibit zoospore production and significantly (p ≤ .05) inhibit hyphal growth at 16 mg l-1 against S. parasitica and S. australis. CIN at the concentration of 50 mg l-1 completely inhibited hyphal growth of both Saprolegnia spp., although the zoospore production of S. parasitica and S. australis was reduced at 25 mg l-1 and 10 mg l-1. In the case of EUG, significant inhibition of the hyphal growth and germination of S. parasitica zoospores was observed at 50 mg l-1. ST and MOR did not show antioomycetes activity. The molecular docking results were consistent with in vitro studies, possibly due to the binding with the vital proteins (Plasma membrane ATPase, V-type proton ATPase, TKL protein kinase, Host targeting protein 1) of S. parasitica and ultimately inhibiting their activity. CUR and CIN showed increased nitric oxide production at the highest concentration of 250 and 256 mg l-1 but the value was not significant (p ≤ .05) with control. CUR showed significantly higher peroxidase activity (p ≤ .05) at a concentration of 256 mg l-1 though values were significantly similar with concentration from 16 to 128 mg l-1. The nitric oxide and total peroxidase activity of rainbow trout leukocytes in the case of CIN showed a significant difference only at 250 mg l-1 against the control. The results conclude that CUR, CIN showed the better anti-Saprolegnia activity and could be used as phyto-additives in aquaculture. Among all, the inclusion of CUR as phyto-additives will provide additional immunostimulatory activity.

Characterization and pathogenicity of Aeromonas veronii associated with mortality in cage farmed grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes, 1844) from the Central Himalayan region of India.

In the study, Aeromonas strains (n = 12) were isolated from moribund grass carp fry reared in the cage culture unit from the Central Himalayan region of India. They were identified as Aeromonas veronii, by biochemically and 16S rRNA analysis. The experimental bath infection of grass carp fry was performed using A. veronii GCAFBLC 228, one of the 12 isolates at cell concentrations 106 and 108 CFU mL-1. The infected fry showed varied behavioural characteristics followed by tail rot, black pigmentation and hemorrhage in the body 48-96 h post infection. The post bath challenged demonstrated maximum mortality (23%) at cell concentration 108 CFU mL-1 during 10th and 12th day. Histopathology revealed hypertrophy, hyperplasia, fusion of gill lamellae, detachment and epithelial cell detachment in gill, swelling of hepatocytes, granular deposition in liver and tubular degeneration and yellow pigmented macrophage aggregates in the kidney. The in vitro assays for virulence traits recorded that A. veronii GCAFBLC 228 was ß-haemolytic having strong cell surface hydrophobicity (CHS) characteristic (> 50%), precipitated after boiling, produced slime, non-suicidal and bound to crystal violet. The antibiogram showed that the strain was susceptible to ciprofloxacin (5 µg), cefotaxime (30 µg), ceftazidime (30 µg), cefoxitin (30 µg), ceftriaxone (30 µg), chloramphenicol (30 µg) and tetracycline (30 µg). Negative staining transmission electron microscopy revealed presence of the lateral flagellum-like structure and cell adherence possibly could be correlated with the pathogenicity of A. veronii GCAFBLC 228. The further investigation is warranted to study the transmission, pathogenesis and epidemiology of A. veronii GCAFBLC 228 to develop the best health management practice for cage farmed fish.

Study on embryonic and larval developmental stages of Sucker head Garra gotyla (Gray 1830; Teleostei; Cyprinidae).

Garra gotyla is an indigenous coldwater fish of the cyprinid family and has wide geographical distribution in India as well as in other countries of Asia and Africa. Induced breeding in G. gotyla was carried out successfully for the first time and an attempt has been made to document developmental stages chronologically from the first minute of fertilization, through all stages of embryonic development until the fifth day post hatching. This experiment was carried out at 22-24°C water temperature at the Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, India. During the breeding trial, the fertilization rate was observed as 70-75% and hatching rate was 85-90%. The mature fertilized ova were measured as 0.8-1.0 mm in diameter and the perivitelline membrane became thick soon after fertilization and formation of the germ pole. The periods taken for complete developmental stages were recorded; cleavage stage 111 min (min post fertilization (pf)), blastulation stage 580 min (pf), neurulation and segmentation 1250 min (pf) and hatching was completed after 1420 min. The sac fry was measured as 3 mm in length and took almost 3 days for complete absorption of the yolk content. The major structural and differential changes observed are in head, tail, fins, alimentary canal, rudiments of each organ and appearance of melanophore pigmentation in the whole body. The 5-day-old larvae were measured as 6 mm in length with almost every organ fully differentiated. The present study will be utilized for large-scale production of fingerlings for stock enhancement in rivers, lakes and possibilities of genetic improvement and manipulation at the embryonic stage.

Recent development in osmotic dehydration of fruit and vegetables: a review.

Osmotic dehydration of fruits and vegetables is achieved by placing the solid/semi solid, whole or in pieces, in a hypertonic solution (sugar and/or salt) with a simultaneous counter diffusion of solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissues. Osmotic dehydration is recommended as a processing method to obtain better quality of food products. Partial dehydration allows structural, nutritional, sensory, and other functional properties of the raw material to be modified. However, the food industry uptake of osmotic dehydration of foods has not been extensive as expected due to the poor understanding of the counter current flow phenomena associated with it. However, these flows are in a dynamic equilibrium with each other and significantly influence the final product in terms of preservation, nutrition, and organoleptic properties. The demand of healthy, natural, nutritious, and tasty processed food products continuously increases, not only for finished products, but also for ingredient to be included in complex foods such as ice cream, cereals, dairy, confectionaries, and bakery products.

Gastrointestinal ALκ amyloidosis presenting as protein-losing enteropathy correctly diagnosed by immunohistochemistry using amyloid-type-specific antibodies.

A 54-year-old man presented with protein-losing enteropathy. Biopsies from the stomach, duodenum, ileum and colon showed deposits of amyloid. The bone marrow showed plasmacytosis. After an initial misdiagnosis of AA amyloid, a revised diagnosis of ALκ amyloidosis was made at an expert referral laboratory. Care must be taken in the use of antibodies and proper controls in the performance and interpretation of immunohistochemistry for amyloidosis. A wide panel of amyloid-type-specific antibodies must be used and interpreted in comparative mode to avoid misdiagnosis.

Evaluation of functional properties of composite flours and sensorial attributes of composite flour biscuits.

The present study was undertaken to develop biscuits from the composite flours. Composite flours were prepared by blending wheat flour with rice flour, green gram flour and potato flour in ratios of 100:0:0:0 (W100), 85:5:5:5 (W85), 70:10:10:10 (W70) and 55:15:15:15 (W55), respectively. The functional properties of composite flours such as swelling capacity, water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, emulsion activity, emulsion stability, foam capacity, foam stability, gelatinization temperature, least gelation concentration and bulk density were increased with increase in the incorporation of other flours with wheat flour. Overall acceptability for composite flour biscuits was awarded highest score for W55 followed by W70 and W85 as compared to control biscuits. All biscuits coincided in the range of 'like moderately' to 'like very much' for composite flours biscuits while 'like slightly' to like moderately' for control biscuits.

Detection of morphometric differentiation in Sattar snowtrout, Schizothorax curvifrons (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from Kashmir Himalaya using a truss network system.

Schizothorax curvifrons is a morphometrically and meristically most variable and economically valuable promising fish food from Kashmir Valley. Since there is a lack of information on stock structure of wild populations on this species, this study was aimed to investigate the intraspecific variation of this important snowtrout. For this, two rivers and one lake in Kashmir Himalaya were sampled from January 2011 to October 2012. Fish body measurements were taken and morphometric characters using the truss network system was constructed. Altogether, 506 fish specimens were collected. Data were subjected to principal component analysis, discriminant function analysis and univariate analysis of variance. The first principal component explained 63.44% of total variation, while second and third components explained 8.34% and 5.31%, respectively. The step-wise discriminant function analysis retained two variables that significantly discriminated the populations. Using these variables 83.4% of the original specimens were classified into their correct groups and 81.1% of the cross-validated (leave one out procedure) specimens were classified into their correct groups. All of the total 31 transformed truss measurements exhibited highly significant (p<0.001) differences between the populations. This represents the first attempt on stock structure of S. curvifrons; therefore, this study will hopefully guide fisheries taxonomists about its current stock structure and would help in its management and conservation programme across Kashmir Himalaya area.

Effects of Plyometric Training on the Agility, Speed, and Explosive Power of Male Collegiate Badminton Players.

Background: Plyometric training involves dynamic activities such as hopping, jumping, skipping, and bounding, and is used to improve dynamic muscle performance. The study aims to determine the effects of a 3-week plyometric training program on the explosive strength (standing broad jump [SBJ]), speed (30-meter sprint), and agility (t-test) of badminton players. Methods: The study recruited 102 eligible subjects who were randomly divided into two groups (51 per group). Both groups were initially tested for agility, speed, and strength. Thereafter, the experimental group underwent the plyometric exercise program twice per week for 3 weeks with a 2-day recovery period in between sessions. During the 3 weeks, the control group continued its routine exercise without plyometric training. After 3 weeks, the study tested both groups for agility, speed, and strength. Results: The agility of the experimental group after plyometric training (pre = 10.51±0.35 vs. post = 9.74±0.39 s) was significantly improved [t (100) = 9.941, p < 0.001] compared with the control group (10.65±0.29 vs. 10.53±0.33 s). Performance in terms of speed was significantly increased [t (100) = 4.675, p < 0.001] for the experimental group (pre = 4.58±0.35 vs. post = 4.06±0.45 s) compared with the control group (pre = 4.62±0.29 vs. post = 4.47±0.34 s). The experimental group (pre = 181.17±6.05 vs. post = 178.30±5.97 s) exhibited a substantial improvement [t (100) = 4.95, p < 0.001] in terms of explosive power compared with that of the control group (pre = 183.02±3.89 vs. post = 183.88±3.91 s). Conclusion: The findings emphasize the benefits of plyometric training in increasing the performance level required during movements in badminton. Plyometrics can help badminton players enhance their agility, speed, and explosive power.

Biosafety, histological alterations and residue depletion of feed administered anti-parasitic drug emamectin benzoate in golden mahseer, Tor putitora (Hamilton, 1822) as a model candidate fish for sport fishery and conservation in temperate waters.

In the present experiment, the attempt has been made to study the biosafety, toxicity, residue depletion and drug tolerance of graded doses of emamectin benzoate (EB) in juveniles of golden mahseer, Tor putitora as a model candidate fish for sport fishery and conservation in temperate waters through an extended medicated feeding. The graded doses of EB viz., 1× (50 µg/kg fish/day), 2 × (100 µg/kg fish/day), 5 × (250 µg/kg fish/day) and 10 × (500 µg/kg fish/day) were administered to golden mahseer juveniles through medicated diet for 21 days at water temperature of 18.6°C. The higher doses of EB did not cause any mortality during and 30 days after the end of medication period, but considerable variations in feeding and behavior were observed. Severe histological alterations observed after EB-diets (5 × and 10×) were vacuolation, pyknotic nuclei, melanomacrophage centre and necrosis in liver; Bowman's capsule dilation, degenerated renal tubules in kidney; myofibril disintegration, muscle oedema, splitting of muscle fibres, migration of inflammatory cells in muscle; and abundant goblet cells, dilated lamina propria and disarrangement of mucosa in intestine tissues. The residual concentrations of EB metabolites Emamectin B1a and B1b were analyzed using muscle extracts and were found to be peaked during medication period followed by gradual depletion in post-medication period. The outcome of this study showed that the Emamectin B1a residual concentration in fish muscle in 1×, 2×, 5×, and 10× EB treatment groups were 1.41 ± 0.49, 1.2 ± 0.7, 9.7 ± 3.3, and 37.4 ± 8.2 µg/kg at 30 days of post-medication period, respectively, which falls under the maximum residue limits (MRLs) of 100 µg/kg. The results support the biosafety of EB at recommended dose of 50 µg/kg fish/day for 7 days. As residue of EB is recorded falling within the MRL, no withdrawal period is recommended for golden mahseer.

Pathological analysis and antimicrobial susceptibility of Chryseobacterium balustinum RTFCP 298 isolated from diseased rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

In this study, six isolates of Chryseobacterium balustinum were characterized from diseased rainbow trout fingerlings. The virulence characteristics, pathogenicity, and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of these isolates were investigated. The bacterium showed positive results for catalase, cytochrome oxidase, and aesculin hydrolysis, while negative results were obtained for DNase, gelatinase, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer's reaction, Simon citrate, Hydrogen sulphide, and starch hydrolysis. Amino acid metabolism analysis revealed the inability to metabolize arginine, lysine, and ornithine decarboxylase. Molecular characterization (16S rRNA) and phylogenetic analysis revealed the test isolates as C. balustinum, closely related to strain WLT (99.85% similarity) and C. balustinum P-27 (99.77%). Virulence assay indicated haemolytic activity and biofilm formation by the test bacterium. The challenge test confirmed moderate pathogenicity in rainbow trout and established Koch's postulates. The clinical manifestations of infection included fin erosion, eye and body surface haemorrhage, exophthalmia, and organ liquefaction. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of various antimicrobials ranged from 1 to > 256 µg mL-1. The novel synthetic antimicrobial peptides exhibited MICs of 8 to > 256 µg mL-1, suggesting a potential control method. These findings suggest that C. balustinum is an opportunistic pathogen with moderate pathogenicity in rainbow trout. Further research on the host-pathogen relationship is necessary to understand virulence characteristics and pathogenicity in aquaculture.

Prevalence of dental myths, oral hygiene methods and tobacco habits in an ageing North Indian rural population.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Though increased emphasis is being given to expanding dental care facilities and awareness in Indian villages, the target population is unfortunately less literate and financially-equipped compared to their urban counterparts. This study attempted to evaluate dental myths, oral hygiene methods and beliefs, and tobacco habits present in a rural ageing population. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study area consisted of a group of 10 villages, situated in the district of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. The sample comprised 681 people aged 50 years or above. The subjects were questioned about dental myths, tobacco habits and oral hygiene methods and then divided into groups on the basis of age, gender, and educational status. Mean values, standard deviation, chi-square test, t-test and p values were used to obtain inter-group comparisons. RESULTS: Forty percent of the subjects considered oral hygiene unnecessary, with 61% relying on simple mouth rinsing for maintaining oral hygiene, 48% either smoked and chewed tobacco or both and 81% had one or more dental myth. CONCLUSION: The results showed that the rural ageing population is deprived and a targeted programme to spread scientific dental practices to them is necessary.

Properties of ionic liquid confined in porous silica matrix.

Porous silica matrices of different pore sizes with confined ionic liquid (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate) [BMIM] [PF(6)] were prepared by sol-gel technique using a tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) precursor with an aim to study the changes in physico-chemical properties of ionic liquid on confinement. It is found that on confinement 1) melting point decreases, 2) fluorescence spectra shows a red shift and 3) the vibrational bands are affected particularly those of imadazolium ring, which interacts more with the walls of the silica matrix. Preliminary theoretical calculations suggest that SiO(2) matrix interact more with the heterocyclic group of [BMIM] cation than the tail alkyl chain end group resulting in significant changes in the aromatic vibrations.

Giant cell arteritis: a clinical and pathological study.

BACKGROUND: Giant cell arteritis is a vasculitis affecting large- and medium-calibre vessels. It is not uncommon in the West and there are many large series in the literature. However, there are very few reports of giant cell arteritis among Indian patients. METHODS: We did a retrospective study of 9 Indian patients (5 men and 4 women; age range 59-81 years [mean and median 70 years]) who had had a temporal artery biopsy for suspected giant cell arteritis at a tertiary care hospital. RESULTS: Eight patients had biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis. The common presenting features were pyrexia of unknown origin (4), headache (6) and blurring of vision (2). The erythrocyte sedimentation rate was elevated and ranged from 25 to 120 mm at the end of the first hour (mean 96, median 105). The C-reactive protein level, which was available in 5 cases, was raised. Giant cells and inflammatory cells were seen in 7 of 8 temporal artery biopsies; a transmural lymphocytic and neutrophil Infiltrate without giant cells was present in 1 case. All patients were treated with steroids and they responded well. CONCLUSION: Temporal arteritis is probably under-recognized in India. Pyrexia is a common presenting feature of the disease; temporal arteritis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of elderly patients with pyrexia of unknown origin.

The emergence of zoonotic Fusarium oxysporum infection in captive-reared fingerlings of golden mahseer, Tor putitora (Hamilton, 1822) from the central Himalayan region of India.

Zoonotic Fusarium oxysporum infection was identified in captive-reared fingerlings of golden mahseer, Tor putitora (Hamilton, 1822) from the central Himalayan regions, India. Initially, fingerlings of T. putitora (mean length 10.8 ± 0.002 and weight 18.58 ± 0.054 g) were observed with cottony mass like growth completely covering the dorsal and caudal fins. The infected fingerlings were showing clinical signs such as sluggish, erratic movement, gasping, flared operculum and settling at one corner of the rearing tanks. The microscopic observation of 8-day old culture of cottony mass like growth showed the presence of septate macroconidia, randomly spread microconidia and chlamydospores in short-chain. From sequence analysis of ITS amplified fragment, the isolate was identified as Fusarium oxysporum, TPFCF 214 (MH464266.1) and clustered with F. oxysporum, strain NRRL 43504 (EF453107.1) and F. oxysporum, strain 20736 (JX 270150.1) isolated from the human in phylogenetic tree. An experimental infection of healthy golden mahseer fingerlings with 20 µl of F. oxysporum spore suspension (2.5 × 109 spore ml-1 ) showed the development of lesion 6-dpi at the site of injection. Experimental trial on EPC-2 cell culture recorded detachment in the monolayer, clumping and shrinking of the cell line 6-8 dpi with a spore suspension of F. oxysporum, TPFCF 214 (5.68 × 102 cell/ml). From the severity of its infection, there is a chance that F. oxysporum may emerge as pathogenically and pose a significant health risk on captive-reared golden mahseer in other Asian countries and world. As Fusarium solani and F. oxysporum are known to cause invasive fusariosis in human especially in immunocompromised patients, localized infection in immunocompetent individuals as well as osteomyelitis, arthritis, otitis, sinusitis and brain abscess, the global fish farmers, handlers and aquaculturist need to be aware of possible health hazards caused by Fusarium spp. and should adopt proper fish health management and animal husbandry practice to control the infection of Fusarium in culture environment.

A Comprehensive Review on the Screening Models for the Pharmacological Assessment of Antiulcer Drugs.

BACKGROUND: Due to inappropriate diet, smoking, alcohol consumption, regular use of drugs like NSAIDs and sedentary lifestyle, one may feel upper abdominal pain which may be the predictor of the gastrointestinal disorder called Peptic Ulcer. When an imbalance occurs between the defensive factor and aggressive factor of the stomach, ulcer formation in the esophageal lining, stomach, or duodenum takes place. This leads to the formation of small sores that cause pain. Another condition that synergizes the abdominal pain is vomiting materials which look like coffee grounds, blood in the stool, black or tarry stools. This pain may increase after lunch or dinner. This problem persists, that often leads to the gastroenterologist's consultation. OBJECTIVE: There are many antiulcer screening models present for the determination of antiulcer activity of the drug molecule. The main objective of this study is to find which model is best for the determination of antiulcer activity. METHODS: A literature search was conducted on the databases namely Science direct and PubMed with the help of different keywords such as "Anti-ulcer", "In-vitro models" and "In-vivo models". The search was customized by applying the appropriate filters so as to get the most relevant articles to meet the objective of this review article. RESULT: There are different research and review papers based on the antiulcer screening models for the determination of antiulcer activity of new drug molecules. CONCLUSION: On the basis of our study, we found some useful models for the antiulcer activity of drugs and suggested that, if we use in-vitro and in-vivo methods together, then we may obtain the most relevant result in our research area.

Retinal precursors and the development of geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: To determine specific retinal precursor lesions and sequence of events preceding the onset of geographic atrophy (GA) in eyes with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). DESIGN: Retrospective review. PARTICIPANTS: All participants in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) at 2 clinical centers (Devers Eye Institute, Portland, Oregon, and University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin) in whom GA initially appeared in at least one eye a minimum of 4 years after the baseline study visit. METHODS: All stereoscopic fundus photographs taken before the appearance of GA in the involved (study) eye were reviewed. Fundus features at the site of future GA were graded and recorded. Three graders reviewed photographs, with independent grading and adjudication by mutual agreement. Features graded included drusen (classified by size and confluence), focal hyperpigmentation, hypopigmentation, and refractile deposits. The time between first appearance of these features and initial appearance of GA was recorded. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Appearance of GA. RESULTS: Of all AREDS participants at the 2 sites, 95 eyes of 77 developed GA at least 4 years after entrance into the study. Average time from baseline to initial appearance of GA was 6.6 years (range, 4-11). Drusen were found in 100% of eyes at the site of later developing GA, drusen >125 mum in diameter in 96% of eyes, confluent drusen in 94%, hyperpigmentation in 96%, drusen > 250 mum in 83%, hypopigmentation in 82%, and refractile deposits in 23%. Time from lesion appearance to onset of GA varied by lesion type, ranging from 5.9 years for drusen confluence to 2.5 years for hypopigmentation or refractile deposits. Lesions generally followed a uniform sequence of appearance. CONCLUSIONS: By focusing on the location of initial GA appearance and then retrospectively analyzing prior photographs, we were able to identify specific precursor lesions and the most common sequence of events leading to GA formation in eyes with AMD. The progression was usually characterized by large drusen formation and development of hyperpigmentation, followed by regression of drusen, appearance of hypopigmentation, and ultimately development of GA, sometimes preceded by the appearance of refractile deposits.

Awareness of Infection Control among Dental Students and Interns.

INTRODUCTION: Disease transmission can occur through direct contact, blood, oral fluids, or other secretions and indirect contact with contaminated instruments, operatory equipment, or objects. Prevention of cross contamination helps in reducing the infection. The level of education of the students, and their knowledge about the infection control directly relates to the patient care. The current study aims to determine the level of knowledge and infection control procedures among dental students in a clihnical practice. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study with a self-administered questionnaire comprised of 18 open and close-ended questions related to infection control and prevention. Answers of the questions were analysed by SPSS version 20. RESULTS: Among the students included, 53 (36.8%) participants were intern, 31 (21.5%) from fifth year, 31 (21.5) from fourth year and 29 (20.1) were third year. Performance satisfaction shows that the students were fairly satisfied with their performance. When students were asked to rate the implementation of infection control policy in their clinical practice 1 (0.7%) were very good, 74 (51.4%) were fair, 44 (30.6%) were good are while 25 (17.4%) were poor to implement infection control policy in their practice. CONCLUSIONS: The level of knowledge and practice of infection control measures was poor among dental students. The attitude towards infections control measures was positive, but a greater compliance was needed. Formal class and examination may help improve knowledge and clinical practices.

Characterization of threatened endemic fish Osteobrama belangeri (Valenciennes, 1844) and related species from North-East India based on morphological and molecular analysis.

Four species of the genus Osteobrama collected from five different sampling sites of Chindwin and Barak river basin of North-East India, namely O. belangeri, O. cotio, O. cunma and O. feae, were characterized. Meristic study showed differences in anal fin rays count and lateral line scales. Morphometric analysis revealed significant differences among Osteobrama species. In Truss analysis, a clear pattern of differentiation was observed among the four species with discriminant function analysis assigning 100% correctly to the particular species. In molecular analysis, four Osteobrama species collected were barcoded with COI and 16S rRNA sequences and phylogenetically these four species formed two distinct clusters, O. belangeri form one separate cluster, from the other three species i.e. O. cotio, O. cunma and O. feae. High-resolution clusters generated (NJ trees) aided the groupings of species corresponding to their genera and families which are in confirmation to the values generated by COI Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery bioinformatics platform.