Volatile Profiles and DNA Barcodes of Myrtaceae Species with Occurrence in the Brazilian Amazon.

Myrtaceae family includes many species with taxonomic challenges, making it one of the most complex families to identify. This study used DNA barcoding to find molecular markers for species authentication based on the Myrtaceae family's chemical composition and genetic diversity. Essential oils and genetic material were extracted from the leaves of six different species: Eugenia uniflora, E. patrisii, Myrcia splendens, Psidium guajava, P. guineense, and Psidium sp. The samples were analyzed based on compound classes and grouped into two categories. Group I included samples with high amounts of oxygenated sesquiterpenes (3.69-76.05 %) and fatty acid derivatives (0.04-43.59 %), such as E. uniflora, Myrcia splendens, and E. patrisii. Group II included samples P. guajava, P. guineense, and Psidium sp., which had a significant content of monoterpene hydrocarbons (0.69-72.35 %), oxygenated sesquiterpenes (8.06-68.1 %), phenylpropanoids (0.45-22.59 %), and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (0.27-21.84 %). The PsbA-trnH gene sequences had a high genetic variability, allowing the species to be distinguished. A phylogenetic analysis showed two main clusters with high Bootstrap values corresponding to the subtribes Eugeniineae, Myrciinae, and Pimentinae. The results suggest a weak correlation between genetic and chemical data in these Myrtaceae species.

Sensory and muscular functions of the pelvic floor in women with endometriosis - cross-sectional study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to analyze the sensory and muscle functions of the pelvic floor in women with endometriosis, trying to improve overall knowledge/findings regarding pelvic floor muscle functions in patients with endometriosis. METHODS: Sample size calculated as 92 patients with endometriosis, aged between 18 and 45 years, not virgin, without other causes of pain and could not be pregnant. Patients underwent the Pelvic Floor Sensorial and Muscle Function Exam (EFSMAP). Descriptive data were recorded with mean and standard deviation, median (range), and absolute and relative frequency. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to observe the normality of quantitative variables. The significance level adopted for this study was 5%. RESULTS: Of 92 women assessed, 93.3% had pain and 75% had increased tone in the levator ani muscle; 50.4% had impaired pelvic floor relaxation with median strength of 3 by the Oxford scale and endurance of 2 s. CONCLUSIONS: The patients had a high prevalence of pain and dysfunction of the pelvic floor muscles, such as low muscle endurance and difficulty to relax. It shows that these patients should be referred to a pelvic floor physiotherapist, as soon as they have the diagnosis of endometriosis, to be assessed to prevent and/or treat pelvic floor impairments.

Siparuna guianensis Essential Oil Antitumoral Activity on Ehrlich Model and Its Effect on Oxidative Stress.

This work aims to evaluate the chemical composition, in vitro antioxidant capacity, and in vivo antitumoral activity of S. guianensis essential oil against Ehrlich's ascitic carcinoma and the effects on oxidative stress. The animals (Mus musculus) received a daily dose of S. guianensis oil orally (100 mg/kg) for 9 days. The main constituents of essential oil were curzerenone (16.4±1.5 %), drimenol (13.7±0.2 %), and spathulenol (12.4±0.8 %). S. guianensis oil showed antioxidant activity, inhibiting 11.1 % of DPPH radicals (95.7 mgTE/g); and 15.5 % of the ß-carotene peroxidation. The group treated with S. guianensis showed a significant reduction in tumor cells (59.76±12.33) compared to the tumor group (96.88±19.15). Essential oil of S. guianensis decreased MDA levels and increased SOD levels in liver tissue. The essential oil of S. guianensis reduced oxidative stress, and showed antitumor and antioxidant activity, being characterized as a new chemical profile in the investigation of pathologies such as cancer.

Antidepressant Effects of Essential Oils: A Review of the Past Decade (2012-2022) and Molecular Docking Study of Their Major Chemical Components.

Depression is a mental disorder that affects more than 300 million people worldwide. The medications available for treatment take a long time to exhibit therapeutic results and present several side effects. Furthermore, there is a decrease in the quality of life of people suffering from this affliction. Essential oils are traditionally used to relieve the symptoms of depression due to the properties of the constituents of these oils to cross the blood-brain barrier acting on depression-related biological receptors associated with reduced toxicity and side effects. In addition, compared to traditional drugs, they have several administration forms. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of studies on plants whose essential oil has exhibit antidepressant activity in the past decade and the mechanism of action of the major components and models tested. An additional in silico study was conducted with the frequent compounds in the composition of these essential oils, providing a molecular approach to the mechanism of action that has been reported in the past decade. This review is valuable for the development of potential antidepressant medications in addition to providing a molecular approach to the antidepressant mechanism of action of the major volatile compounds that have been reported in the past decade.

Stability and Antioxidant Activity of Pouteria macrophylla Fruit Extract, a Natural Source of Gallic Acid.

Pouteria macrophylla (cutite) fruits are rich in phenolic acids, resulting in antioxidant and skin depigmenting activity. The aim of this study, then, is to evaluate the cutite extract stability under three variations of light, time, and temperature using a Box-Behnken experimental design to analyze through the surface response the variations of the total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity (AA), and gallic acid content (GA). A colorimetric assay was also performed, and a decrease in the darkening index was noticed due to the high phenolic coloration in the presence of light, indicating less degradation to extract stability. The experimental planning showed variations in all responses, and second-order polynomial models were calculated and considered predictable, as well as the effects were significant. The TPC exhibited a variation in less concentrated samples (0.5% p/v) at higher temperatures (90 °C). In contrast, the temperature was the only influential variable for AA, where only higher temperatures (60-90 °C) were able to destabilize the fruit extract. Differently, GA showed only the concentration as the influential variable, exhibiting that neither temperature nor time of exposure could affect the gallic acid content stability of P. macrophylla extract. For this, P. macrophylla extract was shown to be highly stable, providing a great perspective on cosmetic application.

Seasonal Variation in Essential Oil Composition and Antioxidant Capacity of Aniba canelilla (Lauraceae): A Reliable Source of 1-Nitro-2-phenylethane.

Aniba canelilla (Kunth) Mez essential oil has many biological activities due to its main compound 1-nitro-2-phenylethane (1N2F), followed by methyleugenol, a carcinogenic agent. This study analyzed the influence of seasonality on yields, antioxidant capacity, and 1N2F content of A. canelilla leaf and twig essential oils. Essential oils (EOs) were extracted with hydrodistillation and analyzed with gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and a flame ionization detector. Antioxidant capacity was measured using the free radical scavenging method (DPPH). Chemometric analyses were carried out to verify the influence of climatic factors on the production and composition of EOs. 1-Nitro-2-phenylethane was the major constituent in A. canelilla EOs throughout the seasonal period (68.0-89.9%); methyleugenol was not detected. Essential oil yields and the 1N2F average did not show a statistically significant difference between the dry and rainy seasons in leaves and twigs. Moderate and significant correlations between major compounds and climate factor were observed. The twig oils (36.0 ± 5.9%) a showed greater antioxidant capacity than the leaf oils (20.4 ± 5.0%). The PCA and HCA analyses showed no statistical differences between the oil samples from the dry and rainy seasons. The absence of methyleugenolin in all months of study, described for the first time, makes this specimen a reliable source of 1N2F.

The Volatile Profiles and DNA Barcodes of Lauraceae Species from the Ocotea Complex with Occurrence in the Brazilian Amazon.

The Ocotea complex accommodates most of the taxonomic diversity of Neotropical Lauraceae with economic importance and biological potential attributed to their essential oils (EOs) and extracts. However, the botanical taxonomy has had limitations due to the difficulty of identifying and delimiting species and genera. The chemical and molecular markers of Ocotea complex species in Pará state, Brazil, were assessed according to their EO compositions and DNA sequences of matK, trnL-trnF, and ITS regions. The multivariate analysis of EOs constituents has classified them into two main clusters characterized by oils rich in (I) terpenoids and phenylpropanoids and (II) sesquiterpenes. We conducted a phylogenetic analysis of species based on DNA barcode sequences on the Bayesian Inference (PP: 0.70-1,0) and Maximum Likelihood (BS: 72-100 %). The comparison between the volatile profiles and phylogenetic data indicates two main groups for these species collected from the Ocotea complex.

Variability in the Chemical Composition of Myrcia sylvatica (G. Mey) DC. Essential Oils Growing in the Brazilian Amazon.

Myrcia sylvatica (G. Mey) DC. is known as "insulin plant" because local communities use the infusions of various organs empirically to treat diabetes. The leaves of seven specimens of Myrcia sylvatica (Msy-01 to Msy-07) were collected in the Brazilian Amazon. Furthermore, the essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, and their chemical compositions were submitted to multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis). The multivariate analysis displayed the formation of four chemical profiles (chemotypes), described for the first time as follows: chemotype I (specimen Msy-01) was characterized by germacrene B (24.5%), γ-elemene (12.5%), and ß-caryophyllene (10.0%); chemotype II (specimens Msy-03, -06 and -07) by spathulenol (11.1-16.0%), germacrene B (7.8-20.7%), and γ-elemene (2.9-7.6%); chemotype III (Msy-04 and -05) by spathulenol (9.8-10.1%), ß-caryophyllene (2.5-10.1%), and δ-cadinene (4.8-5.6%); and chemotype IV, (Msy-02) by spathulenol (13.4%), caryophyllene oxide (15.0%), and α-cadinol (8.9%). There is a chemical variability in the essential oils of Myrcia sylvatica occurring in the Amazon region.

Seasonal Variability of a Caryophyllane Chemotype Essential Oil of Eugenia patrisii Vahl Occurring in the Brazilian Amazon.

Eugenia patrisii Vahl is a native and non-endemic myrtaceous species of the Brazilian Amazon. Due to few botanical and phytochemical reports of this species, the objective of the present work was to evaluate the seasonal variability of their leaf essential oils, performed by GC and GC-MS and chemometric analysis. The results indicated that the variation in oil yields (0.7 ± 0.1%) could be correlated with climatic conditions and rainy (R) and dry seasons (D). (E)-caryophyllene (R = 17.1% ± 16.0, D = 20.2% ± 17.7) and caryophyllene oxide (R = 30.1% ± 18.4, D = 14.1% ± 19.3) are the major constituents and did not display significant differences between the two seasons. However, statistically, a potential correlation between the main constituents of E. patrisii essential oil and the climatic parameters is possible. It was observed that the higher temperature and insolation rates and the lower humidity rate, which are characteristics of the dry season, lead to an increase in the (E)-caryophyllene contents, while lower temperature and insolation and higher humidity, which occur in the rainy season, lead to an increase in the caryophyllene oxide content. The knowledge of variations in the E. patrisii essential oil composition could help choose the best plant chemical profile for medicinal purposes.

Chemical Composition and Variability of the Volatile Components of Myrciaria Species Growing in the Amazon Region.

Myrciaria (Myrtaceae) species have been well investigated due to their chemical and biological relevance. The present work aimed to carry out the chemotaxonomic study of essential oils of the species M. dubia, M. floribunda, and M. tenella, sampled in the Brazilian Amazon and compare them with the volatile compositions from other Myrciaria species reported to Brazil and Colombia. The leaves of six Myrciaria specimens were collected (PA, Brazil) during the dry season, and their chemical compositions were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The main compounds identified in the essential oils were monoterpenes with pinane and menthane skeletons, followed by sesquiterpenes with caryophyllane and cadinane skeletons. Among the sampled Myrciaria specimens, five chemical profiles were reported for the first time: profile I (M. dubia, α-pinene, 54.0-67.2%); profile II (M. floribunda, terpinolene 23.1%, α-phellandrene 17.7%, and γ-terpinene 8.7%); profile III (M. floribunda, γ-cadinene 17.5%, and an unidentified oxygenated sesquiterpene 15.0%); profile IV (M. tenella, E-caryophyllene 43.2%, and α-humulene 5.3%); and profile V (M. tenella, E-caryophyllene 19.1%, and caryophyllene oxide 41.1%). The Myrciaria chemical profiles showed significant variability in extraction methods, collection sites, plant parts, and genetic aspects.

Essential Oil Chemotypes and Genetic Variability of Cinnamomum verum Leaf Samples Commercialized and Cultivated in the Amazon.

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae), also known as "true cinnamon" or "Ceylon cinnamon" has been widely used in traditional folk medicine and cuisine for a long time. The systematics of C. verum presents some difficulties due to genetic variation and morphological similarity between other Cinnamomum species. The present work aimed to find chemical and molecular markers of C. verum samples from the Amazon region of Brazil. The leaf EOs and the genetic material (DNA) were extracted from samples cultivated and commercial samples. The chemical composition of the essential oils from samples of C. verum cultivated (Cve1-Cve5) and commercial (Cve6-c-Cv9-c) was grouped by multivariate statistical analysis of Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The major compounds were rich in benzenoids and phenylpropanoids, such as eugenol (0.7-91.0%), benzyl benzoate (0.28-76.51%), (E)-cinnamyl acetate (0.36-32.1%), and (E)-cinnamaldehyde (1.0-19.73%). DNA barcodes were developed for phylogenetic analysis using the chloroplastic regions of the matK and rbcL genes, and psbA-trnH intergenic spacer. The psbA-trnH sequences provided greater diversity of nucleotides, and matK confirmed the identity of C. verum. The combination of DNA barcode and volatile profile was found to be an important tool for the discrimination of C. verum varieties and to examine the authenticity of industrial sources.

Cardiac response in tambaqui Colossoma macropomum anaesthetised with Piper divaricatum essential oil.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the electrocardiographic responses of Colossoma macropomum exposed to short-term baths using the essential oil of Piper divaricatum (EOPD) as an anaesthetic-like agent in different doses (40, 60, and 80 µL L-1). Cardiac responses throughout and after exposure to EOPD were monitored and evaluated through mean heart rate (HR), duration and amplitude of the QRS complex (ventricular depolarization), and Q-T (ventricular contraction) and R-R (time between two successive QRS complexes) wave intervals. Across all doses, there was a marked depression of the HR, mainly at 80 µL L-1 EOPD. Mean amplitudes recorded for the QRS complex and Q-T interval at 40 µL L-1 EOPD were indistinguishable from the control, which could reinforce this concentration as sufficient and safe to promote fast anaesthesia without affecting cardiac function. Recovery from bradycardia, duration of the R-R interval, and QRS complex were similar at 60 and 80 µL L-1 EOPD; however, the Q-T interval at 80 µL L-1 EOPD revealed a more pronounced cardiac depression in relation to the controls and fish exposed to 60 µL L-1 EOPD. Thus, we conclude that 40 µL L-1 EOPD should suffice to induce fast, deep, and safe anaesthesia in tambaqui juveniles, whereas the concentration of 80 µL L-1 led to a greater depression of the cardiac function, albeit showing effect reversibility.

Effects of photobiomodulation therapy on neuropathic pain in rats: evaluation of nociceptive mediators and infrared thermography.

Nerve injury induces release of peptides and upregulation of receptors such as substance P and transient receptor potential receptor V1 (TRPV1), which contribute to the development and maintenance of chronic pain. Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) is a nonpharmacological strategy that promotes tissue repair and reduces pain and inflammation. However, the molecular basis for PBMT effects on neuropathic pain is still unclear. We investigated the effects of PBMT on substance P, TRPV1, and superficial temperature change in a rodent model of neuropathic pain. We evaluated substance P and TRPV1 in dorsal root ganglia (DRG L4 to L6) at baseline, 14 days after chronic constriction injury (CCI) and after PBMT. We also assessed the superficial temperature of tarsal, metatarsal, tibia, and fibula regions before and after PBMT using infrared thermography. Substance P and TRPV1 levels increased in DRG of CCI rats compared to naive and sham rats and decreased after PBMT. Infrared thermography showed increased temperature of tarsal, metatarsal, tibia, and fibula regions in CCI rats, which was decreased after PBMT. There were no statistical differences between CCI rats with PBMT, sham, and naive rats in any assay. PBMT reduces nociceptive mediators and hind paw and leg's temperature in a rodent model of neuropathic pain, suggesting that PBMT may play a modulatory role in thermoregulation, neurogenic inflammation, and thermal sensitivity in peripheral nerve injuries. Therefore, PBMT appears to be a valuable strategy for neuropathic pain treatment in clinical settings.

Secondary Metabolic Profile as a Tool for Distinction and Characterization of Cultivars of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Cultivated in Pará State, Brazil.

This study evaluated the chemical compositions of the leaves and fruits of eight black pepper cultivars cultivated in Pará State (Amazon, Brazil). Hydrodistillation and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were employed to extract and analyze the volatile compounds, respectively. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were predominant (58.5-90.9%) in the cultivars "Cingapura", "Equador", "Guajarina", "Iaçará", and "Kottanadan", and "Bragantina", "Clonada", and "Uthirankota" displayed oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (50.6-75.0%). The multivariate statistical analysis applied using volatile composition grouped the samples into four groups: γ-Elemene, curzerene, and δ-elemene ("Equador"/"Guajarina", I); δ-elemene ("Iaçará"/"Kottanadan"/"Cingapura", II); elemol ("Clonada"/"Uthirankota", III) and α-muurolol, bicyclogermacrene, and cubebol ("Bragantina", IV). The major compounds in all fruit samples were monoterpene hydrocarbons such as α-pinene, ß-pinene, and limonene. Among the cultivar leaves, phenolics content (44.75-140.53 mg GAE·g-1 FW), the enzymatic activity of phenylalanine-ammonia lyase (20.19-57.22 µU·mL-1), and carotenoids (0.21-2.31 µg·mL-1) displayed significant variations. Due to black pepper's susceptibility to Fusarium infection, a molecular docking analysis was carried out on Fusarium protein targets using each cultivar's volatile components. F. oxysporum endoglucanase was identified as the preferential protein target of the compounds. These results can be used to identify chemical markers related to the susceptibility degree of black pepper cultivars to plant diseases prevalent in Pará State.

Essential Oil Composition and DNA Barcode and Identification of Aniba species (Lauraceae) Growing in the Amazon Region.

Lauraceae species are widely represented in the Amazon, presenting a significant essential oil yield, large chemical variability, various biological applications, and high economic potential. Its taxonomic classification is difficult due to the accentuated morphological uniformity, even among taxa from a different genus. For this reason, the present work aimed to find chemical and molecular markers to discriminate Aniba species collected in the Pará State (Brazil). The chemical composition of the essential oils from Aniba canelilla, A. parviflora, A. rosaeodora, and A. terminalis were grouped by multivariate statistical analysis. The major compounds were rich in benzenoids and terpenoids such as 1-nitro-2-phenylethane (88.34-70.85%), linalool (15.2-75.3%), α-phellandrene (36.0-51.8%), and ß-phellandrene (11.6-25.6%). DNA barcodes were developed using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) nuclear region, and the matK, psbA-trnH, rbcL, and ycf1 plastid regions. The markers psbA-trnH and ITS showed the best discrimination for the species, and the phylogenic analysis in the three- (rbcL + matK + trnH - psbA and rbcL + matK + ITS) and four-locus (rbcL + matK + trnH - psbA + ITS) combination formed clades with groups strongly supported by the Bayesian inference (BI) (PP:1.00) and maximum likelihood (ML) (BS ≥ 97%). Therefore, based on statistical multivariate and phylogenetic analysis, the results showed a significant correlation between volatile chemical classes and genetic characteristics of Aniba species.

Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds and Antibacterial Activity of the Amazonian Cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. Strain GFB01.

Cyanobacteria exhibit great biotechnological potential due to their capacity to produce compounds with various applicability. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) possess low molecular weight and high vapor pressure. Many volatiles produced by microorganisms have biotechnological potential, including antimicrobial activity. This study aimed to investigate the VOCs synthesized by cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. strain GFB01, and the influence of nitrate and phosphate on its antibacterial potential. The strain was isolated from the surface of the freshwater lagoon Lagoa dos Índios, Amapá state, in Northern Brazil. After cultivation, the VOCs were extracted by a simultaneous distillation-extraction process, using a Likens-Nickerson apparatus (2 h), and then identified by GC-MS. The extracts did not display inhibitory activity against the Gram-positive bacteria tested by the disk-diffusion agar method. However, the anti-Salmonella property in both extracts (methanol and aqueous) was detected. The main VOCs identified were heptadecane (81.32%) and octadecyl acetate (11.71%). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of VOCs emitted by a cyanobacterium from the Amazon that reports the occurrence of 6-pentadecanol and octadecyl acetate in cyanobacteria.

The Role of ß-Cyclodextrin in the Textile Industry-Review.

ß-Cyclodextrin (ß-CD) is an oligosaccharide composed of seven units of D-(+)-glucopyranose joined by α-1,4 bonds, which is obtained from starch. Its singular trunk conical shape organization, with a well-defined cavity, provides an adequate environment for several types of molecules to be included. Complexation changes the properties of the guest molecules and can increase their stability and bioavailability, protecting against degradation, and reducing their volatility. Thanks to its versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, ß-CD is widespread in many research and industrial applications. In this review, we summarize the role of ß-CD and its derivatives in the textile industry. First, we present some general physicochemical characteristics, followed by its application in the areas of dyeing, finishing, and wastewater treatment. The review covers the role of ß-CD as an auxiliary agent in dyeing, and as a matrix for dye adsorption until chemical modifications are applied as a finishing agent. Finally, new perspectives about its use in textiles, such as in smart materials for microbial control, are presented.

Chemical composition and biological activities of two chemotype-oils from Cinnamomum verum J. Presl growing in North Brazil.

Chemical composition and antioxidant and antifungal action of the oils from leaves and wood bark of two chemotypes of Cinnamomum verum J. Presl were evaluated. Plants were sampled in the cities of São Luís and Santa Inês, state of Maranhão, Brazil. GC-MS and GC-FID, DPPH radical scavenging, and in vitro test against the phytopathogenic fungus Colletotrichum musae were used to perform these analyses. Cinnamomum verum is worldwide known as Cinnamon, highlighted for its extensive use in the cooking of diverse cultures of the world, and as a medicinal plant to treat environmental viral diseases. In the leaf oil of São Luís chemotype, eugenol (93.6%) was the main constituent, while in Santa Inês chemotype, it was benzyl benzoate (95.3%). In the bark wood oil of São Luís chemotype, (E)-cinnamaldehyde (89.3%) was the main constituent, while in Santa Inês chemotype, they were benzyl benzoate (23.3%), linalool (14.0%), (E)-caryophyllene (9.1%), caryolan-8-ol (7.2%) and borneol (4.7%). Leaf oils from both chemotypes showed strong to moderate antifungal activity, reaching 100% efficacy in eugenol-containing oils and above 70% in benzyl benzoate oils. In the antioxidant evaluation, the chemotype with a high eugenol content presented an inhibitory concentration higher than 80%, compared to Trolox. The leaf oils of the two C. verum chemotypes showed significant antifungal and antioxidant potential, considering their economic use as a functional and nutraceutical food supplement.

Anti-NGF treatment can reduce chronic neuropathic pain by changing peripheral mediators and brain activity in rats.

Neuropathic pain is driven by abnormal peripheral and central processing, and treatments are insufficiently effective. Antibodies against nerve growth factor (anti-NGF) have been investigated as a potent analgesic treatment for numerous conditions. However, the peripheral and brain effects of anti-NGF in neuropathic pain remain unknown. We examined the effectiveness of anti-NGF in reducing chronic pain by local administration in a rat model of sciatic constriction injury (CCI). NGF and substance P in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and spinal cord were evaluated. Neuronal activation was measured using c-Fos in the anterior cingulate cortex and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray. At 14 days after CCI, anti-NGF promoted a significant dose-dependent improvement in mechanical threshold, thermal withdrawal latency, and cold sensitivity, lasting for 5 h. NGF upregulation in the DRG and spinal cord after CCI was decreased by anti-NGF, while substance P was increased only in the DRG, and the treatment reduced it. Anti-NGF induced a significant reduction of neuronal activation in the anterior cingulate cortex, but not in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray. This study provides the first evidence of the anti-NGF effects on brain activity. Thus, our findings suggest that anti-NGF improves chronic neuropathic pain, acting directly on peripheral sensitization and indirectly on central sensitization.

Volatiles of Black Pepper Fruits (Piper nigrum L.).

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is historically one of the most important spices and herbal medicines, and is now cultivated in tropical regions worldwide. The essential oil of black pepper fruits has shown a myriad of biological activities and is a commercially important commodity. In this work, five black pepper essential oils from eastern coastal region of Madagascar and six black pepper essential oils from the Amazon region of Brazil were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major components of the essential oils were α-pinene, sabinene, ß-pinene, δ-3-carene, limonene, and ß-caryophyllene. A comparison of the Madagascar and Brazilian essential oils with black pepper essential oils from various geographical regions reported in the literature was carried out. A hierarchical cluster analysis using the data obtained in this study and those reported in the literature revealed four clearly defined clusters based on the relative concentrations of the major components.