Myristoylation, an Ancient Protein Modification Mirroring Eukaryogenesis and Evolution.

N-myristoylation (MYR) is a crucial fatty acylation catalyzed by N-myristoyltransferases (NMTs) that is likely to have appeared over 2 billion years ago. Proteome-wide approaches have now delivered an exhaustive list of substrates undergoing MYR across approximately 2% of any proteome, with constituents, several unexpected, associated with different membrane compartments. A set of <10 proteins conserved in eukaryotes probably represents the original set of N-myristoylated targets, marking major changes occurring throughout eukaryogenesis. Recent findings have revealed unexpected mechanisms and reactivity, suggesting competition with other acylations that are likely to influence cellular homeostasis and the steady state of the modification landscape. Here, we review recent advances in NMT catalysis, substrate specificity, and MYR proteomics, and discuss concepts regarding MYR during evolution.

Dual lysine and N-terminal acetyltransferases reveal the complexity underpinning protein acetylation.

Protein acetylation is a highly frequent protein modification. However, comparatively little is known about its enzymatic machinery. N-α-acetylation (NTA) and ε-lysine acetylation (KA) are known to be catalyzed by distinct families of enzymes (NATs and KATs, respectively), although the possibility that the same GCN5-related N-acetyltransferase (GNAT) can perform both functions has been debated. Here, we discovered a new family of plastid-localized GNATs, which possess a dual specificity. All characterized GNAT family members display a number of unique features. Quantitative mass spectrometry analyses revealed that these enzymes exhibit both distinct KA and relaxed NTA specificities. Furthermore, inactivation of GNAT2 leads to significant NTA or KA decreases of several plastid proteins, while proteins of other compartments were unaffected. The data indicate that these enzymes have specific protein targets and likely display partly redundant selectivity, increasing the robustness of the acetylation process in vivo. In summary, this study revealed a new layer of complexity in the machinery controlling this prevalent modification and suggests that other eukaryotic GNATs may also possess these previously underappreciated broader enzymatic activities.

Structural and genomic decoding of human and plant myristoylomes reveals a definitive recognition pattern.

An organism's entire protein modification repertoire has yet to be comprehensively mapped. N-myristoylation (MYR) is a crucial eukaryotic N-terminal protein modification. Here we mapped complete Homo sapiens and Arabidopsis thaliana myristoylomes. The crystal structures of human modifier NMT1 complexed with reactive and nonreactive target-mimicking peptide ligands revealed unexpected binding clefts and a modifier recognition pattern. This information allowed integrated mapping of myristoylomes using peptide macroarrays, dedicated prediction algorithms, and in vivo mass spectrometry. Global MYR profiling at the genomic scale identified over a thousand novel, heterogeneous targets in both organisms. Surprisingly, MYR involved a non-negligible set of overlapping targets with N-acetylation, and the sequence signature marks for a third proximal acylation-S-palmitoylation-were genomically imprinted, allowing recognition of sequences exhibiting both acylations. Together, the data extend the N-end rule concept for Gly-starting proteins to subcellular compartmentalization and reveal the main neighbors influencing protein modification profiles and consequent cell fate.

Structural insights into Helicobacter pylori oncoprotein CagA interaction with ß1 integrin.

Infection with the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori is a risk factor for the development of gastric cancer. Pathogenic strains of H. pylori carry a type IV secretion system (T4SS) responsible for the injection of the oncoprotein CagA into host cells. H. pylori and its cag-T4SS exploit α5ß1 integrin as a receptor for CagA translocation. Injected CagA localizes to the inner leaflet of the host cell membrane, where it hijacks host cell signaling and induces cytoskeleton reorganization. Here we describe the crystal structure of the N-terminal ~100-kDa subdomain of CagA at 3.6 Å that unveils a unique combination of folds. The core domain of the protein consists of an extended single-layer ß-sheet stabilized by two independent helical subdomains. The core is followed by a long helix that forms a four-helix helical bundle with the C-terminal domain. Mapping of conserved regions in a set of CagA sequences identified four conserved surface-exposed patches (CSP1-4), which represent putative hot-spots for protein-protein interactions. The proximal part of the single-layer ß-sheet, covering CSP4, is involved in specific binding of CagA to the ß1 integrin, as determined by yeast two-hybrid and in vivo competition assays in H. pylori cell-culture infection studies. These data provide a structural basis for the first step of CagA internalization into host cells and suggest that CagA uses a previously undescribed mechanism to bind ß1 integrin to mediate its own translocation.

Biochemical and structural analysis of N-myristoyltransferase mediated protein tagging.

N-terminal myristoylation is an essential eukaryotic modification crucial for cellular homeostasis in the context of many physiological processes. Myristoylation is a lipid modification resulting in a C14 saturated fatty acid addition. This modification is challenging to capture due to its hydrophobicity, low abundance of target substrates, and the recent discovery of unexpected NMT reactivity including myristoylation of lysine side chains and N-acetylation in addition to classical N-terminal Gly-myristoylation. This chapter details the high-end approaches developed to characterize the different features of N-myristoylation and its targets through in vitro and in vivo labeling.

Crystal structures of DntR inducer binding domains in complex with salicylate offer insights into the activation of LysR-type transcriptional regulators.

Activation of LysR-type transcription factors (LTTRs) is thought to result from conformational changes that occur when inducer molecules bind to their Inducer Binding Domains (IBDs). However, the exact nature of these changes remains to be fully elucidated. We present the crystal structures of two truncated constructs of the LTTR DntR in their apo- forms and in complex with its natural inducer molecule, salicylate. These provide a fuller picture of the conformational changes that can occur in LTTR IBDs and offer insights that may be relevant when considering the mechanism of activation of LTTRs. Two of the crystal structures show that DntR IBDs can bind up to two inducer molecules. The full extent of conformational changes observed is achieved only when inducer molecules are bound in both binding sites identified. Point mutations disrupting the putative secondary binding site produce DntR variants with a reduced response to salicylate in a whole cell system, suggesting that this site is functionally relevant.

The structure of the Helicobacter pylori ferric uptake regulator Fur reveals three functional metal binding sites.

Fur, the ferric uptake regulator, is a transcription factor that controls iron metabolism in bacteria. Binding of ferrous iron to Fur triggers a conformational change that activates the protein for binding to specific DNA sequences named Fur boxes. In Helicobacter pylori, HpFur is involved in acid response and is important for gastric colonization in model animals. Here we present the crystal structure of a functionally active HpFur mutant (HpFur2M; C78S-C150S) bound to zinc. Although its fold is similar to that of other Fur and Fur-like proteins, the crystal structure of HpFur reveals a unique structured N-terminal extension and an unusual C-terminal helix. The structure also shows three metal binding sites: S1 the structural ZnS4 site previously characterized biochemically in HpFur and the two zinc sites identified in other Fur proteins. Site-directed mutagenesis and spectroscopy analyses of purified wild-type HpFur and various mutants show that the two metal binding sites common to other Fur proteins can be also metallated by cobalt. DNA protection and circular dichroism experiments demonstrate that, while these two sites influence the affinity of HpFur for DNA, only one is absolutely required for DNA binding and could be responsible for the conformational changes of Fur upon metal binding while the other is a secondary site.

A Continuous Assay Set to Screen and Characterize Novel Protein N-Acetyltransferases Unveils Rice General Control Non-repressible 5-Related N-Acetyltransferase2 Activity.

Protein N-acetyltransferases (NATs) belong to the general control non-repressible 5 (Gcn5)-related N-acetyltransferases (GNATs) superfamily. GNATs catalyze the transfer of acetyl from acetyl-CoA to the reactive amine moiety of a wide range of acceptors. NAT sequences are difficult to distinguish from other members of the GNAT superfamily and there are many uncharacterized GNATs. To facilitate the discovery and characterization of new GNATs, we have developed a new continuous, non-radioactive assay. This assay is virtually independent of the substrate and can be used to get substrate specificity hints. We validated first the assay with the well-characterized Schizosaccharomyces pombe NatA (SpNatA). The SpNatA kinetic parameters were determined with various peptides confirming the robustness of the new assay. We reveal that the longer the peptide substrate the more efficient the enzyme. As a proof of concept of the relevance of the new assay, we characterized a NAA90 member from rice (Oryza sativa), OsGNAT2. We took advantage of an in vivo medium-scale characterization of OsGNAT2 specificity to identify and then validate in vitro several specific peptide substrates. With this assay, we reveal long-range synergic effects of basic residues on OsGNAT2 activity. Overall, this new, high-throughput assay allows better understanding of the substrate specificity and activity of any GNAT.

Structural and Large-scale Analysis Unveil the Intertwined Paths Promoting NMT-catalyzed Lysine and Glycine Myristoylation.

N-myristoyltransferases (NMTs) catalyze protein myristoylation, a lipid modification crucial for cell survival and a range of pathophysiological processes. Originally thought to modify only N-terminal glycine α-amino groups (G-myristoylation), NMTs were recently shown to also modify lysine ε-amino groups (K-myristoylation). However, the clues ruling NMT-dependent K-myristoylation and the full range of targets are currently unknown. Here we combine mass spectrometry, kinetic studies, in silico analysis, and crystallography to identify the specific features driving each modification. We show that direct interactions between the substrate's reactive amino group and the NMT catalytic base promote K-myristoylation but with poor efficiency compared to G-myristoylation, which instead uses a water-mediated interaction. We provide evidence of depletion of proteins with NMT-dependent K-myristoylation motifs in humans, suggesting evolutionary pressure to prevent this modification in favor of G-myristoylation. In turn, we reveal that K-myristoylation may only result from post-translational events. Our studies finally unravel the respective paths towards K-myristoylation or G-myristoylation, which rely on a very subtle tradeoff embracing the chemical landscape around the reactive group.

High-resolution snapshots of human N-myristoyltransferase in action illuminate a mechanism promoting N-terminal Lys and Gly myristoylation.

The promising drug target N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) catalyses an essential protein modification thought to occur exclusively at N-terminal glycines (Gly). Here, we present high-resolution human NMT1 structures co-crystallised with reactive cognate lipid and peptide substrates, revealing high-resolution snapshots of the entire catalytic mechanism from the initial to final reaction states. Structural comparisons, together with biochemical analysis, provide unforeseen details about how NMT1 reaches a catalytically competent conformation in which the reactive groups are brought into close proximity to enable catalysis. We demonstrate that this mechanism further supports efficient and unprecedented myristoylation of an N-terminal lysine side chain, providing evidence that NMT acts both as N-terminal-lysine and glycine myristoyltransferase.

In HspA from Helicobacter pylori vicinal disulfide bridges are a key determinant of domain B structure.

Helicobacter pylori produces a heat shock protein A (HspA) that is unique to this bacteria. While the first 91 residues (domain A) of the protein are similar to GroES, the last 26 (domain B) are unique to HspA. Domain B contains eight histidines and four cysteines and was suggested to bind nickel. We have produced HspA and two mutants: Cys94Ala and Cys94Ala/Cys111Ala and identified the disulfide bridge pattern of the protein. We found that the cysteines are engaged in three disulfide bonds: Cys51/Cys53, Cys94/Cys111 and Cys95/Cys112 that result in a unique closed loop structure for the domain B.

In vivo and in vitro investigation of transcriptional regulation by DntR.

DntR is a bacterial transcription factor that has been isolated from Burkholderia species that are able to degrade the nitro-aromatic compound 2,4-dinitrotoluene. We recently solved the X-ray crystal structure of DntR, which suggested a putative location of an inducer-binding cavity (IBC). In this study, we constructed mutants of DntR in which residues lining the proposed IBC were modified in order to identify the structural elements involved in inducer binding, to modulate the inducer binding specificity, and to investigate the mechanism of transcriptional regulation by DntR. The transcriptional activation of the reporter gene gfp induced by the wild-type and mutant DntRs was monitored by analysing whole-cell fluorescence using flow-cytometry after addition of a number of potential inducer compounds. Three of the mutant proteins (F111L; F111V/H169V and Y110S/F111V) were purified and the binding constants for several of the potential inducers to these mutants were estimated. Furthermore, crystal structures of the F111L and Y110S/F111V mutant proteins were solved and used to explain changes in the inducer binding specificity at an atomic level. A comparison of the inducing capability in the whole-cell system and binding constants for a number of potential inducers suggests a mechanism where binding of an inducer molecule is not the sole requirement for transcriptional activation. In addition, specific interactions between DntR and the inducer molecule resulting in a conformational change of the protein are needed.

Structural and functional insight into serine hydroxymethyltransferase from Helicobacter pylori.

Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT), encoded by the glyA gene, is a ubiquitous pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the formation of glycine from serine. The thereby generated 5,10-methylene tetrahydrofolate (MTHF) is a major source of cellular one-carbon units and a key intermediate in thymidylate biosynthesis. While in virtually all eukaryotic and many bacterial systems thymidylate synthase ThyA, SHMT and dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) are part of the thymidylate/folate cycle, the situation is different in organisms using flavin-dependent thymidylate synthase ThyX. Here the distinct catalytic reaction directly produces tetrahydrofolate (THF) and consequently in most ThyX-containing organisms, DHFR is absent. While the resulting influence on the folate metabolism of ThyX-containing bacteria is not fully understood, the presence of ThyX may provide growth benefits under conditions where the level of reduced folate derivatives is compromised. Interestingly, the third key enzyme implicated in generation of MTHF, serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT), has a universal phylogenetic distribution, but remains understudied in ThyX-containg bacteria. To obtain functional insight into these ThyX-dependent thymidylate/folate cycles, we characterized the predicted SHMT from the ThyX-containing bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Serine hydroxymethyltransferase activity was confirmed by functional genetic complementation of a glyA-inactivated E. coli strain. A H. pylori ΔglyA strain was obtained, but exhibited markedly slowed growth and had lost the virulence factor CagA. Biochemical and spectroscopic evidence indicated formation of a characteristic enzyme-PLP-glycine-folate complex and revealed unexpectedly weak binding affinity of PLP. The three-dimensional structure of the H. pylori SHMT apoprotein was determined at 2.8Ǻ resolution, suggesting a structural basis for the low affinity of the enzyme for its cofactor. Stabilization of the proposed inactive configuration using small molecules has potential to provide a specific way for inhibiting HpSHMT.

Structural basis of the nickel response in Helicobacter pylori: crystal structures of HpNikR in Apo and nickel-bound states.

The survival of Helicobacter pylori in the human stomach critically relies on the availability and use of nickel, an absolute cofactor of the important virulence determinant urease. Nickel-responsive gene regulation is mediated by HpNikR, a protein belonging to the ribbon-helix-helix family of transcriptional regulators. Unlike its homologues, HpNikR acts as both a repressor and an activator within an acid adaptation cascade. We report the crystal structure of the full-length HpNikR in a nickel-free conformation and two nickel-bound structures obtained in different conditions: Ni1-HpNikR and Ni2-HpNikR. Apo-HpNikR shows the same global fold as its bacterial homologues although with an unusual closed trans-conformation and asymmetrical quaternary arrangement. The structure of Ni1-HpNikR in the presence of nickel has two different sides, one showing nickel binding similar to that of known NikRs and the other reflecting an intermediate state. The structure of Ni2-HpNikR obtained using a shorter exposure to nickel provides another snapshot of the nickel incorporation. Altogether, the three structures have allowed us to determine the route for nickel within HpNikR and reveal the cooperativity between the tetramerization domain and the DNA-binding domain. Experiments using point mutations of HpnikR residues involved in nickel internalisation confirm that these residues are critical for HpNikR functions in vivo.

The C-terminal residue of phage Vp16 PDF, the smallest peptide deformylase, acts as an offset element locking the active conformation.

Prokaryotic proteins must be deformylated before the removal of their first methionine. Peptide deformylase (PDF) is indispensable and guarantees this mechanism. Recent metagenomics studies revealed new idiosyncratic PDF forms as the most abundant family of viral sequences. Little is known regarding these viral PDFs, including the capacity of the corresponding encoded proteins to ensure deformylase activity. We provide here the first evidence that viral PDFs, including the shortest PDF identified to date, Vp16 PDF, display deformylase activity in vivo, despite the absence of the key ribosome-interacting C-terminal region. Moreover, characterization of phage Vp16 PDF underscores unexpected structural and molecular features with the C-terminal Isoleucine residue significantly contributing to deformylase activity both in vitro and in vivo. This residue fully compensates for the absence of the usual long C-domain. Taken together, these data elucidate an unexpected mechanism of enzyme natural evolution and adaptation within viral sequences.

The solution configurations of inactive and activated DntR have implications for the sliding dimer mechanism of LysR transcription factors.

LysR Type Transcriptional Regulators (LTTRs) regulate basic metabolic pathways or virulence gene expression in prokaryotes. Evidence suggests that the activation of LTTRs involves a conformational change from an inactive compact apo- configuration that represses transcription to an active, expanded holo- form that promotes it. However, no LTTR has yet been observed to adopt both configurations. Here, we report the results of structural studies of various forms of the LTTR DntR. Crystal structures of apo-DntR and of a partially autoinducing mutant H169T-DntR suggest that active and inactive DntR maintain a compact homotetrameric configuration. However, Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) studies on solutions of apo-, H169T- and inducer-bound holo-DntR indicate a different behaviour, suggesting that while apo-DntR maintains a compact configuration in solution both H169T- and holo-DntR adopt an expanded conformation. Models of the SAXS-obtained solution conformations of apo- and holo-DntR homotetramers in complex with promoter-operator region DNA are consistent with previous observations of a shifting of LTTR DNA binding sites upon activation and a consequent relaxation in the bend of the promoter-operator region DNA. Our results thus provide clear evidence at the molecular level which strongly supports the 'sliding dimer' hypothesis concerning LTTR activation mechanisms.

Development of a bacterial biosensor for nitrotoluenes: the crystal structure of the transcriptional regulator DntR.

The transcriptional regulator DntR, a member of the LysR family, is a central element in a prototype bacterial cell-based biosensor for the detection of hazardous contamination of soil and groundwater by dinitrotoluenes. To optimise the sensitivity of the biosensor for such compounds we have chosen a rational design of the inducer-binding cavity based on knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of DntR. We report two crystal structures of DntR with acetate (resolution 2.6 angstroms) and thiocyanate (resolution 2.3 angstroms), respectively, occupying the inducer-binding cavity. These structures allow for the construction of models of DntR in complex with salicylate (Kd approximately or = 4 microM) and 2,4-dinitrotoluene that provide a basis for the design of mutant DntR with enhanced specificity for dinitrotoluenes. In both crystal structures DntR crystallises as a homodimer with a "head-to-tail" arrangement of monomers in the asymmetric unit. Analysis of the crystal structure has allowed the building of a full-length model of DntR in its biologically active homotetrameric form consisting of two "head-to-head" dimers. The implications of this model for the mechanism of transcription regulation by LysR proteins are discussed.

Strategies for the purification and on-column cleavage of glutathione-S-transferase fusion target proteins.

In this report, we describe a flexible, efficient and rapid protein purification strategy for the isolation and cleavage of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) fusion proteins. The purification and on-column cleavage strategy was developed to work for the purification of difficult proteins and for target proteins where efficient fusion-tag cleavage is essential for downstream processes, such as structural and functional studies. To test and demonstrate the flexibility of this method, seven diverse unrelated target proteins were assayed. A purification technique is described that can be applied to a wide range of both soluble and membrane inserted recombinant target proteins of differing function, structure and chemical nature. This strategy is performed in a single chromatographic step applying an on-column cleavage method, yielding "native" proteins in the 200 microg to 40 mg/l scale of 95-98% purity.

Structure of a truncation mutant of the nuclear export factor CRM1 provides insights into the auto-inhibitory role of its C-terminal helix.

Chromosome region maintenance 1/exportin1/Xpo1 (CRM1) associates with the GTPase Ran to mediate the nuclear export of proteins bearing a leucine-rich nuclear export signal (NES). CRM1 consists of helical hairpin HEAT repeats and a C-terminal helical extension (C-extension) that inhibits the binding of NES-bearing cargos. We report the crystal structure and small-angle X-ray scattering analysis of a human CRM1 mutant with enhanced NES-binding activity due to deletion of the C-extension. We show that loss of the C-extension leads to a repositioning of CRM1's C-terminal repeats and to a more extended overall conformation. Normal mode analysis predicts reduced rigidity for the deletion mutant, consistent with an observed decrease in thermal stability. Point mutations that destabilize the C-extension shift CRM1 to the more extended conformation, reduce thermal stability, and enhance NES-binding activity. These findings suggest that an important mechanism by which the C-extension regulates CRM1's cargo-binding affinity is by modulating the conformation and flexibility of its HEAT repeats.