Mir142 loss unlocks IDH2R140-dependent leukemogenesis through antagonistic regulation of HOX genes.

AML is a genetically heterogeneous disease and understanding how different co-occurring mutations cooperate to drive leukemogenesis will be crucial for improving diagnostic and therapeutic options for patients. MIR142 mutations have been recurrently detected in IDH-mutated AML samples. Here, we have used a mouse model to investigate the interaction between these two mutations and demonstrate a striking synergy between Mir142 loss-of-function and IDH2R140Q, with only recipients of double mutant cells succumbing to leukemia. Transcriptomic analysis of the non-leukemic single and leukemic double mutant progenitors, isolated from these mice, suggested a novel mechanism of cooperation whereby Mir142 loss-of-function counteracts aberrant silencing of Hoxa cluster genes by IDH2R140Q. Our analysis suggests that IDH2R140Q is an incoherent oncogene, with both positive and negative impacts on leukemogenesis, which requires the action of cooperating mutations to alleviate repression of Hoxa genes in order to advance to leukemia. This model, therefore, provides a compelling rationale for understanding how different mutations cooperate to drive leukemogenesis and the context-dependent effects of oncogenic mutations.

Activation of developmentally mutated human globin genes by cell fusion.

Human fetal globin genes are not expressed in hybrid cells produced by the fusion of normal human lymphocytes with mouse erythroleukemia cells. In contrast, when lymphocytes from persons with globin gene developmental mutations (hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin) are used for these fusions, fetal globin is expressed in the hybrid cells. Thus, mutations of developmental origin can be reconstituted in vitro by fusing mutant lymphoid cells with differentiated cell lines of the proper lineage. This system can readily be used for analyses, such as globin gene methylation, that normally require large numbers of pure nucleated erythroid cells, which are difficult to obtain.

Autonomous developmental control of human embryonic globin gene switching in transgenic mice.

The mechanisms by which expression of the beta-like globin genes are developmentally regulated are under intense investigation. The temporal control of human embryonic (epsilon) globin expression was analyzed. A 3.7-kilobase (kb) fragment that contained the entire human epsilon-globin gene was linked to a 2.5-kb cassette of the locus control region (LCR), and the developmental time of expression of this construct was studied in transgenic mice. The human epsilon-globin transgene was expressed in yolk sac-derived primitive erythroid cells, but not in fetal liver or bone marrow-derived definitive erythroid cells. The absence of epsilon gene expression in definitive erythroid cells suggests that the developmental regulation of the epsilon-globin gene depends only on the presence of the LCR and the epsilon-globin gene itself (that is, an autonomous negative control mechanism). The autonomy of epsilon-globin gene developmental control distinguishes it from the competitive mechanism of regulation of gamma and beta-globin genes, and therefore, suggests that at least two distinct mechanisms function in human hemoglobin switching.

Differential contributions of haematopoietic stem cells to foetal and adult haematopoiesis: insights from functional analysis of transcriptional regulators.

An increasing number of molecules have been identified as candidate regulators of stem cell fates through their involvement in leukaemia or via post-genomic gene discovery approaches. A full understanding of the function of these molecules requires (1) detailed knowledge of the gene networks in which they participate and (2) an appreciation of how these networks vary as cells progress through the haematopoietic cell hierarchy. An additional layer of complexity is added by the occurrence of different haematopoietic cell hierarchies at different stages of ontogeny. Beyond these issues of cell context dependence, it is important from a mechanistic point of view to define the particular cell fate pathway impacted by any given regulator. Herein, we advance the notion that haematopoietic stem cells (HSC), which sustain haematopoiesis throughout adult life and are specified in foetal life, have a minimal or late contribution to foetal haematopoiesis but instead largely proliferate during the foetal period. In light of this notion, we revisit published data on mouse knockouts of haematopoietically-affiliated transcription factors highlighting novel insights that may be gained from taking such a view.

The lineage commitment of haemopoietic progenitor cells.

Multipotent haemopoietic progenitor cells appear to be 'primed' for commitment by co-expression of a multiplicity of genes characteristic of different lineages. Lineage commitment proceeds as the consolidation of a distinct pattern of gene expression out of this milieu.

Author Correction: Osmotic modulation of chromatin impacts on efficiency and kinetics of cell fate modulation.

A correction to this article has been published and is linked from the HTML and PDF versions of this paper. The error has been fixed in the paper.

Osmotic modulation of chromatin impacts on efficiency and kinetics of cell fate modulation.

Chromatin structure is a major regulator of transcription and gene expression. Herein we explore the use of osmotic modulation to modify the chromatin structure and reprogram gene expression. In this study we use the extracellular osmotic pressure as a chromatin structure and transcriptional modulator. Hyposmotic modulation promotes chromatin loosening and induces changes in RNA polymerase II (Pol II) activity. The chromatin decondensation opens space for higher amounts of DNA engaged RNA Pol II. Hyposmotic modulation constitutes an alternative route to manipulate cell fate decisions. This technology was tested in model protocols of induced pluripotency and transdifferentiation in cells growing in suspension and adherent to substrates, CD34+ umbilical-cord-blood (UCB), fibroblasts and B-cells. The efficiency and kinetics of these cell fate modulation processes were improved by transient hyposmotic modulation of the cell environment.

B-cell commitment: Pax5 is the deciding factor.

Recent studies have identified the transcription factor Pax5 as a critical determinant of commitment to the B-lymphocyte pathway. Surprisingly, Pax5 appears to achieve this primarily through suppressing alternative haematopoietic lineage fates.

Potentiation of GATA-2 activity through interactions with the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) and the t(15;17)-generated PML-retinoic acid receptor alpha oncoprotein.

The hematopoietically expressed GATA family of transcription factors function as key regulators of blood cell fate. Among these, GATA-2 is implicated in the survival and growth of multipotential progenitors. Here we report that the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) can complex with GATA-2 and potentiate its transactivation capacity. The binding is mediated through interaction of the zinc finger region of GATA-2 and the B-box domain of PML. The B-box region of PML is retained in the PML-RARalpha (retinoic acid receptor alpha) fusion protein generated by the t(15;17) translocation characteristic of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Consistent with this, we provide evidence that GATA-2 can physically associate with PML-RARalpha. Functional experiments further demonstrated that this interaction has the capacity to render GATA-dependent transcription inducible by retinoic acid, raising the possibility that GATA target genes may be involved in the molecular pathogenesis of APL.

Role for DNA replication in beta-globin gene activation.

Transcriptional activation of the Xenopus laevis beta-globin gene requires the synergistic action of the simian virus 40 enhancer and DNA replication in DEAE-dextran-mediated HeLa cell transfections. Replication does not act through covalent modification of the template, since its requirement was not obviated by the prior replication of the transfected DNA in eucaryotic cells. Transfection of DNA over a 100-fold range demonstrates that replication does not contribute to gene activation simply increasing template copy number. Furthermore, in cotransfections of replicating and nonreplicating constructs, only replicating templates were transcribed. Replication is not simply a requirement of chromatin assembly, since even unreplicated templates generated nucleosomal ladders. Stimulation of beta-globin transcription by DNA replication, though less marked, was also observed in calcium phosphate transfections. We interpret these results as revealing a dynamic role for replication in gene activation.

Developmental programs of human erythroleukemia cells: globin gene expression and methylation.

We investigated the programs of globin gene expression in three known (K562, HEL, and KMOE) and three novel (OCI-M1, OCI-M2, and HEL-R) human erythroleukemic cell lines of adult origin. RNAs from induced and uninduced cells were analyzed for epsilon-, gamma-, delta-, and beta-, zeta-globin-specific transcripts. While high-level gamma-globin expression was common, the lines differed in their expression of embryonic (epsilon, zeta) and adult (delta, beta) globin mRNAs. The patterns of globin gene methylation were generally consistent with their observed expression profiles, with many of the same correlations being seen in normal cells. Although the programs of globin gene expression and methylation displayed by the lines appeared to be diverse, they were not random; rather, they made developmental sense, mimicking defined globin gene programs observed during normal human development. The characteristics exhibited by several of these lines suggest that they may have been derived from the transformation of multi- or oligopotent hematopoietic progenitor cells. We speculate that the expression of fetal or embryonic globins in these adult erythroleukemic cell lines is not an aberration of neoplastic transformation but is indicative of a fetal or embryonic potential in normal adult hematopoietic progenitors.

Expression of the fetal hematopoiesis regulator FEV indicates leukemias of prenatal origin.

The origin of cancers is associated with etiology as well as therapeutics. Several studies reveal that malignancies in children can originate in utero. However, a diagnostic approach to distinguish between cancers initiated pre- or postnatally is absent. Here we identified a transcriptional factor FEV (fifth Ewing variant) that was expressed in fetal hematopoietic cells and became silent after birth. We characterized that FEV was essential for the self-renewal of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). We next found that FEV was expressed in most infant leukemia samples, but seldom in adult samples, in accord with the known prenatal origins of the former. We further determined the majority of pediatric acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) were FEV positive. Moreover, FEV knockdown markedly impaired the leukemia-propagating ability of leukemic stem cells. We therefore identified FEV is unique to fetal HSCs and stably expressed in leukemic cells of prenatal origin. It may also provide a tractable therapeutic target.

5' structural motifs and Xenopus beta globin gene activation.

We have analysed the structure of the Xenopus beta globin gene 5' flanking region in erythroid and non-erythroid chromatin, in supercoiled plasmids and in minichromosomes assembled in HeLa cell transfections. We have identified two erythroid chromatin-specific, nuclease-hypersensitive sites (HSs), one centred on the cap site, the other located 1000 base-pairs further upstream. An (AT)n tract is located 200 base-pairs upstream from each of these sites. In supercoiled plasmids, the (AT)n tracts, and not the chromatin HSs, are preferentially cleaved by single strand and double strand-specific nucleases. Using restriction enzymes, we have looked at the structure of the cap site HS in minichromosomes assembled in HeLa cell transfections. We find that the structure is indistinguishable from that found in erythroid chromatin, thus reinforcing our previous suggestion, based only on DNase I studies, that the formation of this HS is not dependent on erythroid-specific factors. In view of this close structural mimicry of the situation in vivo, we have used the HeLa cell model system to study the sequences required for cap site HS formation. We find that deletion of the (AT)n tract immediately upstream influenced neither the formation of the HS nor transcription of the globin gene. Indeed, these features remained unaffected by further deletion of upstream sequences, including 50 base-pairs of the HS itself. In this construct, the dimensions of the HS remained the same as in the undeleted construct, with the plasmid sequences that replaced the deleted Xenopus sequences becoming hypersensitive. Thus, HS formation is directed by sequences downstream from --116 acting over a distance of at least 50 base-pairs.

Globin gene switching: a paradigm or what?

The delineation of the beta-globin locus control region has led to a new understanding of the developmental regulation of the beta-globin gene cluster. It now seems that globin gene switching is effected through the sequential and mutually exclusive interaction of the locus control region with the embryonic, fetal and adult stage specific globin genes.

Acute promyelocytic leukemia: where does it stem from?

A fundamental issue in cancer biology is the identification of the target cell in which the causative molecular lesion arises. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is thought to reflect the transformation of a primitive stem cell compartment. The resultant 'cancer stem cells' comprise only a minor portion of the leukemic clone but give rise through differentiation to more committed progenitors as well as differentiated blasts that constitute the bulk of the tumor. The maintenance of the leukemic clone is dependent on the self-renewal capacity of the cancer stem cell compartment, which is revealed by its ability to re-initiate leukemia in a transplant setting. The cellular basis of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) is however less clear. APL has traditionally been considered to be the most differentiated form of AML and to arise from a committed myeloid progenitor. Here we review apparently conflicting evidence pertaining to the cellular origins of APL and propose that this leukemia may originate in more than one cellular compartment. This view could account for many apparent inconsistencies in the literature to date. An understanding of the nature of the target cell involved in transformation of APL has important implications for biological mechanism and for clinical treatment.

Lymphopain, a cytotoxic T and natural killer cell-associated cysteine proteinase.

Through differential screening of established human leukaemia cell lines, we have identified and molecularly cloned lymphopain, a novel cysteine proteinase of the papain family. Lymphopain exhibits a remarkably restricted cellular pattern of expression, being predominantly expressed in cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and natural killer cells. The human lymphopain locus maps to chromosome 11q13, encodes a polypeptide of 376 amino acids and is conserved in the mouse. Both human and murine forms appear more closely related to protozoan papain-like enzymes than to other mammalian members of the papain family. The cellular distribution of lymphopain expression, together with the functional demonstration of lymphopain-associated proteinase activity in vitro, is suggestive of a role for lymphopain in immune cell-mediated, cell killing.

Stem cell programs are retained in human leukemic lymphoblasts.

Leukemic lymphoblasts within different immunophenotypic populations possess stem cell properties. However, whether or not the self-renewal program is retained from stem cells or conferred on progenitors by leukemogenic molecules remains unknown. We have addressed the issue in the context of TEL-AML1-associated acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) by profiling a refined program edited from genes essential for self-renewal of hematopoietic stem cells and B-cell development. Bioinformatic analysis shows that ALL populations are loosely clustered and close to the normal population that contains stem and primitive progenitor cells. This finding indicates that immunophenotypes do not reflect maturation stages in ALL and that the self-renewal program may be retained from stem cells. Results of assessing 'first hit' function of TEL-AML1 in different populations of normal cells demonstrate the molecular model. Therefore, the current study shows a leukemogenic scenario of human ALL in which programs of stem cells are sustained in distinct fractions by leukemogenic mutations.

Multiple changes in chromatin structure precede the transcriptional activation of the human growth hormone locus in placental cells.

In addition to the growth hormone gene (hGH-N) itself, the human growth hormone (hGH) locus contains four related genes, namely hGH-V and hCS-L, -A and -B, which have appeared very recently in evolution and are specifically expressed in placenta. With the aim of identifying the regulatory elements responsible for this placental-specific expression, we have mapped the DNaseI hypersensitive sites present at the hGH gene cluster in a placental cell line (BeWo) that expresses the hGH-V and hCS genes. Our results reveal a complex pattern of hypersensitive sites distributed along the hGH locus, most of which appear to be cell type-specific. Thus, we have identified placental-specific hypersensitive sites within the first intron of the hGH-N and hGH-V genes, but not in the equivalent regions of the hCS genes. In addition, we have found several placental-specific hypersensitive sites downstream of the hCS-L and hCS-A genes, which might reflect the presence of enhancer elements similar to that located downstream of the hCS-B gene (Walker et al. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 12940). Comparison of BeWo cells with a placental cell line (JEG-3) which does not express the hGH-V and hCS genes revealed a very similar pattern of hypersensitive sites, suggesting that the sites detected are established before the onset of transcription. Our results indicate that the transition to an active hGH locus in placental cells requires multiple alterations in chromatin structure, and provide a framework for the molecular analysis of the regulatory elements and mechanisms mediating such processes.

Surgical Treatment of 55 Patients with Pressure Ulcers at the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Kosovo during the Period 2000-2010: A Retrospective Study.

Objective. The objective of this study is to determine the incidence of PUs, the distribution of PUs, common injuries contributing to the occurrence of PUs in patients admitted to the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Kosovo for surgical interventions of PUs, localization of PUs in body, the topical treatment of pressure ulcers before surgical intervention, the methods of surgical interventions, number of surgical interventions, duration of treatment, complications, and mortality. Materials and Methods. This study includes 55 patients with PUs treated surgically in 2000-2010 period in the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Kosovo. The data were collected and analyzed from the archives and protocols of the University Clinical Center of Kosovo. Data processing was done with the statistical package In Stat 3. From statistical parameters arithmetic median and standard deviation were calculated. Data testing is done with χ (2)-test and the difference is significant if P < 0.05. Conclusion. Despite preventive measures against PUs, the incidence of Pus remains high.