Glucocorticoids regulate lipid mediator networks by reciprocal modulation of 15-lipoxygenase isoforms affecting inflammation resolution.

Glucocorticoids (GC) are potent anti-inflammatory agents, broadly used to treat acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, e.g., critically ill COVID-19 patients or patients with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. GC not only limit inflammation but also promote its resolution although the underlying mechanisms are obscure. Here, we reveal reciprocal regulation of 15-lipoxygenase (LOX) isoform expression in human monocyte/macrophage lineages by GC with respective consequences for the biosynthesis of specialized proresolving mediators (SPM) and their 15-LOX-derived monohydroxylated precursors (mono-15-OH). Dexamethasone robustly up-regulated pre-mRNA, mRNA, and protein levels of ALOX15B/15-LOX-2 in blood monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) phenotypes, causing elevated SPM and mono-15-OH production in inflammatory cell types. In sharp contrast, dexamethasone blocked ALOX15/15-LOX-1 expression and impaired SPM formation in proresolving M2-MDM. These dexamethasone actions were mimicked by prednisolone and hydrocortisone but not by progesterone, and they were counteracted by the GC receptor (GR) antagonist RU486. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays revealed robust GR recruitment to a putative enhancer region within intron 3 of the ALOX15B gene but not to the transcription start site. Knockdown of 15-LOX-2 in M1-MDM abolished GC-induced SPM formation and mono-15-OH production. Finally, ALOX15B/15-LOX-2 upregulation was evident in human monocytes from patients with GC-treated COVID-19 or patients with IBD. Our findings may explain the proresolving GC actions and offer opportunities for optimizing GC pharmacotherapy and proresolving mediator production.

Staphylococcus aureus controls eicosanoid and specialized pro-resolving mediator production via lipoteichoic acid.

Staphylococcus aureus causes severe infections associated with inflammation, such as sepsis or osteomyelitis. Inflammatory processes are regulated by distinct lipid mediators (LMs) but how their biosynthetic pathways are orchestrated in S. aureus infections is elusive. We show that S. aureus strikingly not only modulates pro-inflammatory, but also inflammation-resolving LM pathways in murine osteomyelitis and osteoclasts as well as in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) with different phenotype. Targeted LM metabololipidomics using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry revealed massive generation of LM with distinct LM signature profiles in acute and chronic phases of S. aureus-induced murine osteomyelitis in vivo. In human MDM, S. aureus elevated cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostaglandin E2  synthase-1 (mPGES-1), but impaired the levels of 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LOX-1), with respective changes in LM signature profiles initiated by these enzymes, that is, elevated PGE2 and impaired specialized pro-resolving mediators, along with reduced M2-like phenotypic macrophage markers. The cell wall component, lipoteichoic acid (LTA), mimicked the impact of S. aureus elevating COX-2/mPGES-1 expression via NF-κB and p38 MAPK signalling in MDM, while the impairment of 15-LOX-1 correlates with reduced expression of Lamtor1. In conclusion, S. aureus dictates LM pathways via LTA resulting in a shift from anti-inflammatory M2-like towards pro-inflammatory M1-like LM signature profiles.

Structural and mechanistic insights into 5-lipoxygenase inhibition by natural products.

Leukotrienes (LT) are lipid mediators of the inflammatory response that are linked to asthma and atherosclerosis. LT biosynthesis is initiated by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) with the assistance of the substrate-binding 5-LOX-activating protein at the nuclear membrane. Here, we contrast the structural and functional consequences of the binding of two natural product inhibitors of 5-LOX. The redox-type inhibitor nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) is lodged in the 5-LOX active site, now fully exposed by disordering of the helix that caps it in the apo-enzyme. In contrast, the allosteric inhibitor 3-acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic acid (AKBA) from frankincense wedges between the membrane-binding and catalytic domains of 5-LOX, some 30 Å from the catalytic iron. While enzyme inhibition by NDGA is robust, AKBA promotes a shift in the regiospecificity, evident in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and in primary immune cells expressing 5-LOX. Our results suggest a new approach to isoform-specific 5-LOX inhibitor development through exploitation of an allosteric site in 5-LOX.

Anti-inflammatory celastrol promotes a switch from leukotriene biosynthesis to formation of specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators.

The pentacyclic triterpenoid quinone methide celastrol (CS) from Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. F. effectively ameliorates inflammation with potential as therapeutics for inflammatory diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory and inflammation-resolving features of CS are incompletely understood. Here we demonstrate that CS potently inhibits the activity of human 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), the key enzyme in pro-inflammatory leukotriene (LT) formation, in cell-free assays with IC50 = 0.19-0.49 µM. Employing metabololipidomics using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry in activated human polymorphonuclear leukocytes or M1 macrophages we found that CS (1 µM) potently suppresses 5-LOX-derived products without impairing the formation of lipid mediators (LM) formed by 12-/15-LOXs as well as fatty acid substrate release. Intriguingly, CS induced the generation of 12-/15-LOX-derived LM including the specialized pro-resolving mediator (SPM) resolvin D5 in human M2 macrophages. Finally, intraperitoneal pre-treatment of mice with 10 mg/kg CS strongly impaired zymosan-induced LT formation and simultaneously elevated the levels of SPM and related 12-/15-LOX-derived LM in peritoneal exudates, spleen and plasma in vivo. Conclusively, CS promotes a switch from LT biosynthesis to formation of SPM which may underlie the anti-inflammatory and inflammation-resolving effects of CS, representing an interesting pharmacological strategy for intervention with inflammatory disorders.

Vacuolar (H+)-ATPase Critically Regulates Specialized Proresolving Mediator Pathways in Human M2-like Monocyte-Derived Macrophages and Has a Crucial Role in Resolution of Inflammation.

Alternative (M2)-polarized macrophages possess high capacities to produce specialized proresolving mediators (SPM; i.e., resolvins, protectins, and maresins) that play key roles in resolution of inflammation and tissue regeneration. Vacuolar (H+)-ATPase (V-ATPase) is fundamental in inflammatory cytokine trafficking and secretion and was implicated in macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype, but its role in SPM production and lipid mediator biosynthesis in general is elusive. In this study, we show that V-ATPase activity is required for the induction of SPM-biosynthetic pathways in human M2-like monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) and consequently for resolution of inflammation. Blockade of V-ATPase by archazolid during IL-4-induced human M2 polarization abrogated 15-lipoxygenase-1 expression and prevented the related biosynthesis of SPM in response to pathogenic Escherichia coli, assessed by targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based metabololipidomics. In classically activated proinflammatory M1-like MDM, however, the biosynthetic machinery for lipid mediator formation was independent of V-ATPase activity. Targeting V-ATPase in M2 influenced neither IL-4-triggered JAK/STAT6 nor the mTOR complex 1 signaling but strongly suppressed the ERK-1/2 pathway. Accordingly, the ERK-1/2 pathway contributes to 15-lipoxygenase-1 expression and SPM formation in M2-like MDM. Targeting V-ATPase in vivo delayed resolution of zymosan-induced murine peritonitis accompanied by decreased SPM levels without affecting proinflammatory leukotrienes or PGs. Together, our data propose that V-ATPase regulates 15-lipoxygenase-1 expression and consequent SPM biosynthesis involving ERK-1/2 during M2 polarization, implying a crucial role for V-ATPase in the resolution of inflammation.

Communication between human macrophages and epithelial cancer cell lines dictates lipid mediator biosynthesis.

In tumors, cancer cells coexist and communicate with macrophages that can promote tumorigenesis via pro-inflammatory signals. Lipid mediators (LMs), produced mainly by cyclooxygenases (COXs) or lipoxygenases (LOs), display a variety of biological functions with advantageous or deleterious consequences for tumors. Here, we investigated how the communication between human monocyte-derived M2-like macrophages (MDM) and cancer cells affects LM biosynthesis using LM metabololipidomics. Coculture of human MDM with human A549 epithelial lung carcinoma cells, separated by a semipermeable membrane, increased LM formation by MDM upon subsequent activation. Strongest effects were observed on 5-LO-derived LM. While expression of the 5-LO pathway was not altered, p38 MAPK and the downstream MAPKAPK-2 that phosphorylates and stimulates 5-LO were more susceptible for activation in MDM upon precedent coculture with A549 cells as compared to monocultures. Accordingly, the p38 MAPK inhibitor Skepinone-L selectively prevented this increase in 5-LO product formation. Also, 5-LO-/15-LO-derived LM including lipoxin A4, resolvin D2 and D5 were elevated after coculture with A549 cells, correlating to increased 15-LO-1 protein levels. In contrast to cancer cells, coincubation with non-transformed human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) did not affect LM production in MDM. Vice versa, MDM increased COX-2 protein expression and COX-mediated prostanoid formation in cancer cells. Conclusively, our data reveal that the communication between MDM and cancer cells can strikingly modulate the biosynthetic capacities to produce bioactive LM with potential relevance for tumor biology.

Targeting biosynthetic networks of the proinflammatory and proresolving lipid metabolome.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs interfere with the metabolism of arachidonic acid to proinflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes by targeting cyclooxygenases (COXs), 5-lipoxygenase (LOX), or the 5-LOX-activating protein (FLAP). These and related enzymes act in conjunction with marked crosstalk within a complex lipid mediator (LM) network where also specialized proresolving LMs (SPMs) are formed. Here, we present how prominent LM pathways can be differentially modulated in human proinflammatory M1 and proresolving M2 macrophage phenotypes that, upon exposure to Escherichia coli, produce either abundant prostaglandins and leukotrienes (M1) or SPMs (M2). Targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based metabololipidomics was applied to analyze and quantify the specific LM profiles. Besides expected on-target actions, we found that: 1) COX or 15-LOX-1 inhibitors elevate inflammatory leukotriene levels, 2) FLAP and 5-LOX inhibitors reduce leukotrienes in M1 but less so in M2 macrophages, 3) zileuton blocks resolution-initiating SPM biosynthesis, whereas FLAP inhibition increases SPM levels, and 4) that the 15-LOX-1 inhibitor 3887 suppresses SPM formation in M2 macrophages. Conclusively, interference with discrete LM biosynthetic enzymes in different macrophage phenotypes considerably affects the LM metabolomes with potential consequences for inflammation-resolution pharmacotherapy. Our data may allow better appraisal of the therapeutic potential of these drugs to intervene with inflammatory disorders.-Werner, M., Jordan, P. M., Romp, E., Czapka, A., Rao, Z., Kretzer, C., Koeberle, A., Garscha, U., Pace, S., Claesson, H.-E., Serhan, C. N., Werz, O., Gerstmeier, J. Targeting biosynthetic networks of the proinflammatory and proresolving lipid metabolome.

The Anti-Inflammatory and Antimicrobial Potential of Selected Ethnomedicinal Plants from Sri Lanka.

Traditional folk medicine in Sri Lanka is mostly based on plants and plant-derived products, however, many of these medicinal plant species are scientifically unexplored. Here, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial potency of 28 different extracts prepared from seven popular medicinal plant species employed in Sri Lanka. The extracts were subjected to cell-based and cell-free assays of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase (mPGES)-1, and nitric oxide (NO) scavenging activity. Moreover, antibacterial and disinfectant activities were assessed. Characterization of secondary metabolites was achieved by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis. n-Hexane- and dichloromethane-based extracts of Garcinia cambogia efficiently suppressed 5-LO activity in human neutrophils (IC50 = 0.92 and 1.39 µg/mL), and potently inhibited isolated human 5-LO (IC50 = 0.15 and 0.16 µg/mL) and mPGES-1 (IC50 = 0.29 and 0.49 µg/mL). Lipophilic extracts of Pothos scandens displayed potent inhibition of mPGES-1 only. A methanolic extract of Ophiorrhiza mungos caused significant NO scavenging activity. The lipophilic extracts of G. cambogia exhibited prominent antibacterial and disinfectant activities, and GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of fatty acids, sesquiterpenes and other types of secondary metabolites. Together, our results suggest the prospective utilization of G. cambogia as disinfective agent with potent anti-inflammatory properties.

Time-resolved in situ assembly of the leukotriene-synthetic 5-lipoxygenase/5-lipoxygenase-activating protein complex in blood leukocytes.

5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the initial steps in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes. Upon cell activation, 5-LO translocates to the nuclear membrane where arachidonic acid is transferred by 5-LO-activating protein (FLAP) to 5-LO for metabolism. Although previous data indicate association of 5-LO with FLAP, the in situ assembly of native 5-LO/FLAP complexes remains elusive. Here, we show time-resolved 5-LO/FLAP colocalization by immunofluorescence microscopy and in situ 5-LO/FLAP interaction by proximity ligation assay at the nuclear membrane of Ca(2+)-ionophore A23187-activated human monocytes and neutrophils in relation to 5-LO activity. Although 5-LO translocation and product formation is completed within 1.5-3 min, 5-LO/FLAP interaction is delayed and proceeds up to 30 min. Though monocytes and neutrophils contain comparable amounts of 5-LO protein, neutrophils produce 3-5 times higher levels of 5-LO products due to prolonged activity, accompanied by delayed 5-LO nuclear membrane translocation. Arachidonic acid seemingly acts as adaptor for 5-LO/FLAP assembly, whereas FLAP inhibitors (MK886, 100 nM; BAY X 1005, 3 µM) disrupt the complex. We conclude that FLAP may regulate 5-LO activity in 2 ways: first by inducing an initial flexible association for efficient 5-LO product synthesis, followed by the formation of a tight 5-LO/FLAP complex that terminates 5-LO activity.

5-Lipoxygenase-activating protein rescues activity of 5-lipoxygenase mutations that delay nuclear membrane association and disrupt product formation.

Leukotrienes (LTs) are proinflammatory lipid mediators formed from arachidonic acid in a 2-step reaction catalyzed by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) requiring the formation of 5-HPETE [5(S)-hydroperoxy-6-trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid] and its subsequent transformation to LTA4 5-LOX is thought to receive arachidonic acid from the nuclear membrane-embedded 5-LOX-activating protein (FLAP). The crystal structure of 5-LOX revealed an active site concealed by F177 and Y181 (FY cork). We examined the influence of the FY cork on 5-LOX activity and membrane binding in HEK293 cells in the absence and presence of FLAP. Uncapping the 5-LOX active site by mutation of F177 and/or Y181 to alanine (5-LOX-F177A, 5-LOX-Y181A, 5-LOX-F177/Y181A) resulted in delayed and diminished 5-LOX membrane association in A23187-stimulated cells. For 5-LOX-F177A and 5-LOX-F177/Y181A, formation of 5-LOX products was dramatically reduced relative to 5-LOX-wild type (wt). Strikingly, coexpression of FLAP in A23187-activated HEK293 cells effectively restored formation of 5-H(p)ETE (5-hydroxy- and 5-peroxy-6-trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid) by these same 5-LOX mutants (≈60-70% 5-LOX-wt levels) but not of LTA4 hydrolysis products. Yet 5-LOX-Y181A generated 5-H(p)ETE at levels comparable to 5-LOX-wt but reduced LTA4 hydrolysis products. Coexpression of FLAP partially restored LTA4 hydrolysis product formation by 5-LOX-Y181A. Together, the data suggest that the concealed FY cork impacts membrane association and that FLAP may help shield an uncapped active site.-Gerstmeier, J., Newcomer, M. E., Dennhardt, S., Romp, E., Fischer, J., Werz, O., Garscha, U. 5-Lipoxygenase-activating protein rescues activity of 5-lipoxygenase mutations that delay nuclear membrane association and disrupt product formation.

Characterization of the interaction of human 5-lipoxygenase with its activating protein FLAP.

Human 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) is the key enzyme in the formation of leukotrienes (LTs), important mediators of inflammation. Cellular 5-LO activity is regulated in a complex manner, e.g. by calcium influx, the cellular redox status or 5-LO phosphorylation. Being a mobile enzyme, 5-LO migrates from the cytosol to the nuclear envelope where it is believed to interact with 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP) and receives the substrate arachidonic acid (AA). 5-LO contains four cysteine residues located close to the AA entry site. In the present study, we show that in vitro glutathionylation of recombinant purified 5-LO wildtype (WT) as well as 5-LO 4C, a mutant where the four surface cysteines are replaced by serines (Cys159/300/416/418Ser), does not alter the product synthesis. However, in 5-LO/FLAP-transfected HeLa cells, treatment with the thiol-oxidizing agent diamide which promotes glutathionylation at surface Cys residues led to a decreased LT synthesis by 5-LO WT. In contrast to the WT enzyme, LT formation of the 4C mutant was stimulated by addition of diamide. Immunofluorescence studies in human monocytes and HEK293 cells, expressing 5-LO and FLAP, revealed that diamide prevented the translocation of 5-LO WT whereas it enhanced the translocation of the fourfold cysteine mutant. Therefore, we could demonstrate that the interface, involving the four cysteines 159, 300, 416 and 418, is important for the translocation to the nuclear membrane and the colocalization with FLAP.

An experimental cell-based model for studying the cell biology and molecular pharmacology of 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein in leukotriene biosynthesis.

BACKGROUND: Subcellular distribution of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) to the perinuclear region and interaction with the 5-LO-activating protein (FLAP) are assumed as key steps in leukotriene biosynthesis and are prone to FLAP antagonists. METHODS: FLAP and/or 5-LO were stably expressed in HEK293 cells, 5-LO products were analyzed by HPLC, and 5-LO and FLAP subcellular localization was visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy. RESULTS: 5-LO and FLAP were stably expressed in HEK293 cells, and upon Ca(2+)-ionophore A23187 stimulation exogenous AA was efficiently transformed into the 5-LO products 5-hydro(pero)xyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-H(p)ETE) and the trans-isomers of LTB4. A23187 stimulation caused 5-LO accumulation at the nuclear membrane only when FLAP was co-expressed. Unexpectedly, A23187 stimulation of HEK cells expressing 5-LO and FLAP without exogenous AA failed in 5-LO product synthesis. HEK cells liberated AA in response to A23187, and transfected HEK cells expressing 12-LO generated 12-HETE after A23187 challenge from endogenous AA. FLAP co-expression increased 5-LO product formation in A23187-stimulated cells at low AA concentrations. Only in cells expressing FLAP and 5-LO, the FLAP antagonist MK886 blocked FLAP-mediated increase in 5-LO product formation, and prevented 5-LO nuclear membrane translocation and co-localization with FLAP. CONCLUSION: The cellular biosynthesis of 5-LO products from endogenously derived substrate requires not only functional 5-LO/FLAP co-localization but also additional prerequisites which are dispensable when exogenous AA is supplied; identification of these determinants is challenging. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: We present a cell model to study the role of FLAP as 5-LO interacting protein in LT biosynthesis in intact cells and for characterization of putative FLAP antagonists.

We Ask and Listen: A Group-Wide Retrospective Survey on Satisfaction with Digital Medication Software.

Purpose: Computerized physician order entry (CPOE) and clinical decision support systems (CDSS) are used internationally since the 1980s. These systems reduce costs, enhance drug therapy safety, and improve quality of care. A few years ago, there was a growing effort to digitize the healthcare sector in Germany. Implementing such systems like CPOE-CDSS requires training for effective adoption and, more important, acceptance by the users. Potential improvements for the software and implementation process can be derived from the users' perspective. The implementation process is globally relevant and applicable across professions due to the constant advancement of digitalization. The study assessed the implementation of medication software and overall satisfaction. Methods: In an anonymous voluntary online survey, physicians and nursing staff were asked about their satisfaction with the new CPOE-CDSS. The survey comprised single-choice queries on a Likert scale, categorizing into general information, digital medication administration, drug safety, and software introduction. In addition multiple-choice questions are mentioned. Data analysis was performed using Microsoft Office Excel 2016 and GraphPad PRISM 9.5.0. Results: Nurses and physicians' satisfaction with the new software increased with usage hours. The software's performance and loading times have clearly had a negative impact, which leads to a low satisfaction of only 20% among physicians and 17% among nurses. 53% of nurses find the program's training period unsuitable for their daily use, while 57% of physicians approve the training's scope for their professional group. Both professions agree that drug-related problems are easier to detect using CPOE-CDSS, with 76% of nurses and 75% of physicians agreeing. The study provides unbiased feedback on software implementation. Conclusion: In conclusion, digitizing healthcare requires managing change, effective training, and addressing software functionality concerns to ensure improved medication safety and streamlined processes. Interfaces, performance optimization, and training remain crucial for software acceptance and effectiveness.

Introduction of Unit-Dose Care in the 1,125 Bed Teaching Hospital: Practical Experience and Time Saving on Wards.

Purpose: The shortage of nursing staff as well as the slow progress in the German health care system's digitalisation has gained much attention due to COVID-19. Patient-specific medication management using the unit-dose dispensing system (UDDS) has the potential for a lasting and positive influence on both digitalisation and the relief of nursing staff. Methods: Nursing staff UDDS-acceptance was determined via a validated online survey. For the evaluation of stock keeping on the wards, the delivery quantities were determined for a comparative period before and after the introduction of the UDDS. The time required for on-ward medication-related processes on ward before and after the introduction of UDDS was recorded based on a survey form and the nursing relief in full-time equivalent (FTE) was calculated using the data obtained. Results: We show that nurses appreciate the UDDS and confirm a significant reduction in drug stocks on the wards. The UDDS reduces the time needed to dispense medications from 4.52 ± 0.35 min to 1.67 ± 0.15 min/day/patient. In relation to the entire medication process, this corresponds to a reduction of 50% per day and per patient. Based on 40,000 patients/year and a supply of 1,125 beds with unit-dose blisters, 7.36 FTE nursing staff can be relieved per year. In contrast, 6.5 FTE in the hospital pharmacy are required for supplying the hospitals. Conclusion: UDDS is well accepted by nurses, reduces stock levels on ward, and fulfils criteria as a nursing-relief measure.

Allosteric Activation of 15-Lipoxygenase-1 by Boswellic Acid Induces the Lipid Mediator Class Switch to Promote Resolution of Inflammation.

Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM), primarily produced in innate immune cells, exert crucial bioactions for resolving inflammation. Among various lipoxygenases (LOX), 15-LOX-1 is key for SPM biosynthesis, but cellular activation principles of 15-LOX-1 are unexplored. It was shown that 3-O-acetyl-11-keto-ß-boswellic acid (AKBA) shifts 5-LOX regiospecificity from 5- to 12-lipoxygenation products. Here, it is demonstrated that AKBA additionally activates cellular 15-LOX-1 via an allosteric site accomplishing robust SPM formation in innate immune cells, particularly in M2 macrophages. Compared to ionophore, AKBA-induced LOX activation is Ca2+ - and phosphorylation-independent, with modest induction of 5-LOX products. AKBA docks into a groove between the catalytic and regulatory domains of 15-LOX-1 interacting with R98; replacement of R98 by alanine abolishes AKBA-induced 15-LOX product formation in HEK293 cells. In zymosan-induced murine peritonitis, AKBA strikingly elevates SPM levels and promotes inflammation resolution. Together, targeted allosteric modulation of LOX activities governs SPM formation and offers new concepts for inflammation resolution pharmacotherapy.

Lipid droplets control mitogenic lipid mediator production in human cancer cells.

OBJECTIVES: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are structural components of membrane phospholipids and precursors of oxygenated lipid mediators with diverse functions, including the control of cell growth, inflammation and tumourigenesis. However, the molecular pathways that control the availability of PUFAs for lipid mediator production are not well understood. Here, we investigated the crosstalk of three pathways in the provision of PUFAs for lipid mediator production: (i) secreted group X phospholipase A2 (GX sPLA2) and (ii) cytosolic group IVA PLA2 (cPLA2α), both mobilizing PUFAs from membrane phospholipids, and (iii) adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), which mediates the degradation of triacylglycerols (TAGs) stored in cytosolic lipid droplets (LDs). METHODS: We combined lipidomic and functional analyses in cancer cell line models to dissect the trafficking of PUFAs between membrane phospholipids and LDs and determine the role of these pathways in lipid mediator production, cancer cell proliferation and tumour growth in vivo. RESULTS: We demonstrate that lipid mediator production strongly depends on TAG turnover. GX sPLA2 directs ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs from membrane phospholipids into TAG stores, whereas ATGL is required for their entry into lipid mediator biosynthetic pathways. ATGL controls the release of PUFAs from LD stores and their conversion into cyclooxygenase- and lipoxygenase-derived lipid mediators under conditions of nutrient sufficiency and during serum starvation. In starving cells, ATGL also promotes the incorporation of LD-derived PUFAs into phospholipids, representing substrates for cPLA2α. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the built-up of TAG stores by acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) is required for the production of mitogenic lipid signals that promote cancer cell proliferation and tumour growth. CONCLUSION: This study shifts the paradigm of PLA2-driven lipid mediator signalling and identifies LDs as central lipid mediator production hubs. Targeting DGAT1-mediated LD biogenesis is a promising strategy to restrict lipid mediator production and tumour growth.

Identification of novel benzimidazole derivatives as inhibitors of leukotriene biosynthesis by virtual screening targeting 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP).

Pharmacological suppression of leukotriene biosynthesis by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO)-activating protein (FLAP) inhibitors is a promising strategy to intervene with inflammatory, allergic and cardiovascular diseases. Virtual screening targeting FLAP based on a combined ligand- and structure-based pharmacophore model led to the identification of 1-(2-chlorobenzyl)-2-(1-(4-isobutylphenyl)ethyl)-1H-benzimidazole (7) as developable candidate. Compound 7 potently suppressed leukotriene formation in intact neutrophils (IC(50)=0.31 µM) but essentially failed to directly inhibit 5-LO suggesting that interaction with FLAP causes inhibition of leukotriene synthesis. For structural optimization, a series of 46 benzimidazole-based derivatives of 7 were synthesized leading to more potent analogues (70-72, 82) with IC(50)=0.12-0.19 µM in intact neutrophils. Together, our results disclose the benzimidazole scaffold bearing an ibuprofen fingerprint as a new chemotype for further development of anti-leukotriene agents.

Plectranthus zeylanicus: A Rich Source of Secondary Metabolites with Antimicrobial, Disinfectant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities.

Plectranthus zeylanicus Benth is used in Sri Lankan folk medicine as a remedy for inflammatory conditions and microbial infections. Our previous investigations revealed potent 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) inhibitory activity in lipophilic extracts of this plant, supporting its anti-inflammatory potential. In-depth studies on the antimicrobial activity have not been conducted and the bioactive ingredients remained elusive. As a continuation of our previous work, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of different extracts of P. zeylanicus and to isolate and characterize bioactive secondary metabolites. Different organic extracts of this plant were analyzed for their antibacterial activity, and the most active extract, i.e., dichloromethane extract, was subjected to bioactivity-guided fractionation, which led to the isolation of 7α-acetoxy-6ß-hydroxyroyleanone. This compound displayed strong antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 62.5 µg/mL, and its disinfectant capacity was comparable to the potency of a commercial disinfectant. Moreover, 7α-acetoxy-6ß-hydroxyroyleanone inhibits 5-LO with IC50 values of 1.3 and 5.1 µg/mL in cell-free and cell-based assays, respectively. These findings rationalize the ethnopharmacological use of P. zeylanicus as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory remedy.

Incidence and severity of G6PI-induced arthritis are not increased in genetically distinct mouse strains upon aging.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of rheumatoid arthritis is correlated with age. In this study, we analyzed the association of the incidence and severity of glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (G6PI)-induced arthritis with age in two different mouse strains. METHODS: Young and very old mice from two different arthritis-susceptible wild-type mouse strains were analyzed after a single subcutaneous injection of G6PI s.c. The metabolism and the function of synoviocytes were analyzed in vitro, the production of bioactive lipid mediators by myeloid cells and synoviocytes was assessed in vitro and ex vivo by UPLC-MS-MS, and flow cytometry was used to verify age-related changes of immune cell composition and function. RESULTS: While the severity of arthritis was independent from age, the onset was delayed in old mice. Old mice showed common signs of immune aging like thymic atrophy associated with decreased CD4+ effector T cell numbers. Despite its decrease, the effector T helper (Th) cell compartment in old mice was reactive and functionally intact, and their Tregs exhibited unaltered suppressive capacities. In homeostasis, macrophages and synoviocytes from old mice produced higher amounts of pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenase (COX)-derived products. However, this functional difference did not remain upon challenge in vitro nor upon arthritis reactions ex vivo. CONCLUSION: While old mice show a higher baseline of inflammatory functions, this does not result in increased reaction towards self-antigens in arthritis-susceptible mouse strains. Together, our data from two different mouse strains show that the susceptibility for G6PI-induced arthritis is not age-dependent.

Controlled Release of the α-Tocopherol-Derived Metabolite α-13'-Carboxychromanol from Bacterial Nanocellulose Wound Cover Improves Wound Healing.

Inflammation is a hallmark of tissue remodeling during wound healing. The inflammatory response to wounds is tightly controlled and well-coordinated; dysregulation compromises wound healing and causes persistent inflammation. Topical application of natural anti-inflammatory products may improve wound healing, in particular under chronic pathological conditions. The long-chain metabolites of vitamin E (LCM) are bioactive molecules that mediate cellular effects via oxidative stress signaling as well as anti-inflammatory pathways. However, the effect of LCM on wound healing has not been investigated. We administered the α-tocopherol-derived LCMs α-13'-hydroxychromanol (α-13'-OH) and α-13'-carboxychromanol (α-13'-COOH) as well as the natural product garcinoic acid, a δ-tocotrienol derivative, in different pharmaceutical formulations directly to wounds using a splinted wound mouse model to investigate their effects on the wounds' proinflammatory microenvironment and wound healing. Garcinoic acid and, in particular, α-13'-COOH accelerated wound healing and quality of the newly formed tissue. We next loaded bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a valuable nanomaterial used as a wound dressing with high potential for drug delivery, with α-13'-COOH. The controlled release of α-13'-COOH using BNC promoted wound healing and wound closure, mainly when a diabetic condition was induced before the injury. This study highlights the potential of α-13'-COOH combined with BNC as a potential active wound dressing for the advanced therapy of skin injuries.