BTLA dysregulation correlates with poor outcome and diminished T cell-mediated antitumor responses in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) progressively develop marked immunosuppression, dampening innate and adaptive-driven antitumor responses. However, the underlying mechanisms promoting immune exhaustion are largely unknown. Herein, we provide new insights into the role of BTLA/HVEM axis promoting defects in T cell-mediated responses against leukemic cells. Increased expression of BTLA, an inhibitory immune checkpoint, was detected on the surface of CD4 + and CD8 + T lymphocytes in patients with CLL. Moreover, high levels of BTLA on CD4 + T cells correlated with diminished time to treatment. Signaling through BTLA activation led to decreased IL-2 and IFN-γ production ex vivo, whereas BTLA/HVEM binding disruption enhanced IFN-γ + CD8 + T lymphocytes. Accordingly, BTLA blockade in combination with bispecific anti-CD3/anti-CD19 antibody promoted CD8 + T cell-mediated anti-leukemic responses. Finally, treatment with an anti-BLTA blocking monoclonal antibody alone or in combination with ibrutinib-induced leukemic cell depletion in vitro. Altogether, our data reveal that BTLA dysregulation has a prognostic role and is limiting T cell-driven antitumor responses, thus providing new insights about immune exhaustion in patients with CLL.

ß-Lactam TRPM8 Antagonists Derived from Phe-Phenylalaninol Conjugates: Structure-Activity Relationships and Antiallodynic Activity.

The protein transient receptor potential melastatin type 8 (TRPM8), a non-selective, calcium (Ca2+)-permeable ion channel is implicated in several pathological conditions, including neuropathic pain states. In our previous research endeavors, we have identified ß-lactam derivatives with high hydrophobic character that exhibit potent and selective TRPM8 antagonist activity. This work describes the synthesis of novel derivatives featuring C-terminal amides and diversely substituted N'-terminal monobenzyl groups in an attempt to increase the total polar surface area (TPSA) in this family of compounds. The primary goal was to assess the influence of these substituents on the inhibition of menthol-induced cellular Ca2+ entry, thereby establishing critical structure-activity relationships. While the substitution of the tert-butyl ester by isobutyl amide moieties improved the antagonist activity, none of the N'-monobencyl derivatives, regardless of the substituent on the phenyl ring, achieved the activity of the model dibenzyl compound. The antagonist potency of the most effective compounds was subsequently verified using Patch-Clamp electrophysiology experiments. Furthermore, we evaluated the selectivity of one of these compounds against other members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channel family and some receptors connected to peripheral pain pathways. This compound demonstrated specificity for TRPM8 channels. To better comprehend the potential mode of interaction, we conducted docking experiments to uncover plausible binding sites on the functionally active tetrameric protein. While the four main populated poses are located by the pore zone, a similar location to that described for the N-(3-aminopropyl)-2-[(3-methylphenyl)methoxy]-N-(2-thienylmethyl)-benzamide (AMTB) antagonist cannot be discarded. Finally, in vivo experiments, involving a couple of selected compounds, revealed significant antinociceptive activity within a mice model of cold allodynia induced by oxaliplatin (OXA).

ß-Lactam TRPM8 Antagonist RGM8-51 Displays Antinociceptive Activity in Different Animal Models.

Transient receptor potential melastatin subtype 8 (TRPM8) is a cation channel extensively expressed in sensory neurons and implicated in different painful states. However, the effectiveness of TRPM8 modulators for pain relief is still a matter of discussion, since structurally diverse modulators lead to different results, depending on the animal pain model. In this work, we described the antinociceptive activity of a ß-lactam derivative, RGM8-51, showing good TRPM8 antagonist activity, and selectivity against related thermoTRP channels and other pain-mediating receptors. In primary cultures of rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, RGM8-51 potently reduced menthol-evoked neuronal firing without affecting the major ion conductances responsible for action potential generation. This compound has in vivo antinociceptive activity in response to cold, in a mouse model of oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy. In addition, it reduces cold, mechanical and heat hypersensitivity in a rat model of neuropathic pain arising after chronic constriction of the sciatic nerve. Furthermore, RGM8-51 exhibits mechanical hypersensitivity-relieving activity, in a mouse model of NTG-induced hyperesthesia. Taken together, these preclinical results substantiate that this TRPM8 antagonist is a promising pharmacological tool to study TRPM8-related diseases.

DD04107-Derived neuronal exocytosis inhibitor peptides: Evidences for synaptotagmin-1 as a putative target.

The analgesic peptide DD04107 (Pal-EEMQRR-NH2) and its acetylated analogue inhibit α-calcitonin gene-related peptide (α-CGRP) exocytotic release from primary sensory neurons. Examining the crystal structure of the SNARE-Synaptotagmin-1(Syt1) complex, we hypothesized that these peptides could inhibit neuronal exocytosis by binding to Syt1, hampering at least partially its interaction with the SNARE complex. To address this hypothesis, we first interrogate the role of individual side-chains on the inhibition of α-CGRP release, finding that E1, M3, Q4 and R6 residues were crucial for activity. CD and NMR conformational analysis showed that linear peptides have tendency to adopt α-helical conformations, but the results with cyclic analogues indicated that this secondary structure is not needed for activity. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) measurements demonstrate a direct interaction of some of these peptides with Syt1-C2B domain, but not with Syt7-C2B region, indicating selectivity. As expected for a compound able to inhibit α-CGRP release, cyclic peptide derivative Pal-E-cyclo[EMQK]R-NH2 showed potent in vivo analgesic activity, in a model of inflammatory pain. Molecular dynamics simulations provided a model consistent with KD values for the interaction of peptides with Syt1-C2B domain, and with their biological activity. Altogether, these results identify Syt1 as a potential new analgesic target.

Is TRPA1 Burning Down TRPV1 as Druggable Target for the Treatment of Chronic Pain?

Over the last decades, a great array of molecular mediators have been identified as potential targets for the treatment of chronic pain. Among these mediators, transient receptor potential (TRP) channel superfamily members have been thoroughly studied. Namely, the nonselective cationic channel, transient receptor potential ankyrin subtype 1 (TRPA1), has been described as a chemical nocisensor involved in noxious cold and mechanical sensation and as rivalling TRPV1, which traditionally has been considered as the most important TRP channel involved in nociceptive transduction. However, few TRPA1-related drugs have succeeded in clinical trials. In the present review, we attempt to discuss the latest data on the topic and future directions for pharmacological intervention.

Cytotoxic T cells modulate inflammation and endogenous opioid analgesia in chronic arthritis.

BACKGROUND: This study examined the development of chronic pain, a cardinal symptom of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), in mice with antigen- and collagen-induced arthritis (ACIA). Since the role of CD8+ T cells in arthritis is controversial, we investigated the consequences of CD8-depletion on arthritis development and opioid modulation of pain in this novel model of chronic autoimmune arthritis. METHODS: Disease severity in control and CD8-depleted animals was determined by histological assessment of knee-joint sections and measurement of autoantibody formation. Pain was evaluated by measuring mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in von Frey and Hargreaves tests, respectively. The production and release of endogenous opioids and inflammatory cytokines was assessed in immunoassays. RESULTS: In ACIA, mice display persistent mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia for more than 2 months after induction of arthritis. The blockade of peripheral opioid receptors with naloxone-methiodide (NLXM) transiently increased thermal hyperalgesia, indicating that endogenous opioid peptides were released in the arthritic joint to inhibit pain. CD8+ T cell depletion did not affect autoantibody formation or severity of joint inflammation, but serum levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-17 were increased. The release of opioid peptides from explanted arthritic knee cells and the NLXM effect were significantly reduced in the absence of CD8+ T cells. CONCLUSIONS: We have successfully modeled the development of chronic pain, a hallmark of RA, in ACIA. Furthermore, we detected a yet unknown protective role of CD8+ T cells in chronic ACIA since pro-inflammatory cytokines rose and opioid peptide release decreased in the absence of these cells.

Hyperalgesic and hypoalgesic mechanisms evoked by the acute administration of CCL5 in mice.

We show here that the intraplantar administration of CCL5 in mice produces hyperalgesia at low doses but activates compensatory antinociceptive mechanisms at doses slightly higher. Thus, the injection of 3-10ng of CCL5 evoked thermal hyperalgesia through the activation of CCR1 and CCR5 receptors, as demonstrated by the inhibitory effect exerted by the selective antagonists J113863 (0.01-0.1µg) and DAPTA (0.3-3µg), respectively. The prevention of this hyperalgesia by diclofenac (1-10µg), the inhibitors of COX-1 SC-560 (0.1-1µg) or COX-2 celecoxib (1-5µg), the TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine (0.03-0.3µg) or the TRPA1 antagonist HC030031 (10-50µg) demonstrates the involvement of prostaglandin synthesis and TRP sensitization in CCL5-evoked hyperalgesia. Doses of CCL5 higher than 17µg did not evoke hyperalgesia. However, this effect was restored by the administration of naloxone-methiodide (5µg), nor-binaltorphimine (10mg/kg) or an anti-dynorphin A antibody (0.62-2.5ng). The administration of 30ng of CCL5 also induced hyperalgesia in mice with reduced number of circulating white blood cells in response to cyclophosphamide or with selective neutrophil depletion induced by an anti-Ly6G antibody. In fact, the number of neutrophils present in paws treated with 30ng of CCL5 was greater than in paws receiving the administration of the hyperalgesic dose of 10ng. Finally, the expression of the endogenous opioid peptide dynorphin A was demonstrated by double immunofluorescence assays in these neutrophils attracted by CCL5. These results support previous data describing the hyperalgesic properties of CCL5 and constitute the first indication that a chemokine of the CC group can activate endogenous analgesic mechanisms.

Involvement of spinal chemokine CCL2 in the hyperalgesia evoked by bone cancer in mice: a role for astroglia and microglia.

The hypernociceptive role played by the chemokine CCL2, and its main receptor, CCR2, in pathological settings is being increasingly recognized. We aimed to characterize the involvement of spinal CCL2 in the hyperalgesia due to the intratibial inoculation of fibrosarcoma NCTC 2472 cells in mice. The intrathecal (i.t.) administration of the CCR2 antagonist RS 504393 (1­3 µg) or an anti-CCL2 antibody inhibited tumoral hyperalgesia. No change in the expression of spinal CCR2 was detected by western blot, whereas immunohistochemical experiments demonstrated increased CCL2 staining at the superficial laminae of the spinal cord ipsilateral to the tumor. This spinal CCL2 does not seem to be released from nociceptors since CCL2 mRNA and CCL2 levels in DRGs, as measured by RT-PCR and ELISA, remain unmodified in tumor-bearing mice. In contrast, immunohistochemical assays demonstrated the spinal up-regulations of GFAP and Iba-1, respective markers of astroglia and microglia, and the expression of CCL2 in both types of glial cells at the superficial laminae of the spinal cord of tumor-bearing mice. Finally, since CCL2 could induce astroglial or microglial activation, we studied whether the blockade of CCR2 could inhibit the increased spinal glial expression. GFAP, but not Iba-1, up-regulation was reduced in tumor-bearing mice treated for 3 days with i.t. RS 504393, indicating that spinal CCL2 acts as an astroglial activator in this setting. The participation at spinal level of CCL2/CCR2 in tumoral hypernociception, together with its previously described involvement at periphery, makes attractive the modulation of this system for the alleviation of neoplastic pain.

Involvement of CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes in the modulation of nociceptive processing evoked by CCL4 in mice.

AIMS: To explore the mechanisms involved in the transformation of analgesia produced by low doses of CCL4 (pg/kg) to hyperalgesia when higher doses (ng/kg) are administered to mice. MAIN METHODS: The unilateral hot plate test was used to assess thermal nociception. CD3+, CD4+ or CD8+ blood cells were depleted with selective antibodies. Expression of CCR5 and IL-16 in lymphocytes was studied by flow cytometry and IL-16 blood levels were measured by ELISA. IL-16 and CD8 were detected by immunofluorescence. KEY FINDINGS: IL-16 and CCR5 expression were demonstrated in CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes by flow cytometry. Furthermore, CCL4-induced hyperalgesia was abolished by reducing circulating T-lymphocyte levels or by selectively depleting CD4+ lymphocytes. In contrast, when the anti-CD4 antibody was acutely administered, CCL4 induced analgesia instead of hyperalgesia. A similar response was obtained when administering A-770041, that prevents CD4-mediated CCR5 desensitization by inhibiting p56lck kinase. As occurred with the analgesic effect evoked by low doses of CCL4, analgesia evoked by combining CCL4 and A-770041 was reverted by naloxone, naltrindole or an anti-met-enk antibody. Interestingly, flow cytometry assays showed that the number of CD8+, but not CD4+, T-cells expressing IL-16 is reduced after the acute administration of CCL4, a result compatible with the description that CD8+-lymphocytes can rapidly release preformed IL-16. Accordingly, the rise in IL-16 blood concentration evoked by CCL4 was prevented after CD8+ lymphocyte depletion. SIGNIFICANCE: CCL4-evoked hyperalgesia is related to the desensitization of CCR5 in CD4+ T-cells and to the release of IL-16 from CD8+ lymphocytes.

Kappa-opioid receptor-mediated thermal analgesia evoked by the intrathecal administration of the chemokine CCL1 in mice.

BACKGROUND: The chemokine CC motif ligand 1 (CCL1) participates in immune cell recruitment and, as other chemokines, is also involved in nociceptive processing. In contrast with previous reports indicating its participation in allodynia and cold hypernociception when spinally administered, its ability to evoke heat thermal analgesia, mediated by circulating leukocytes and endocannabinoids, after systemic administration has recently been reported. OBJECTIVES: Aiming to explore the role played by CCL1 on spinal nociception, we study here the effect of its intrathecal administration on thermal nociception in mice. METHODS: Behavioral nociceptive assays, immunohistochemical experiments, white cell blood depletion procedures and qRT-PCR experiments were performed. RESULTS: The intrathecal administration of CCL1 (0.3-30 ng) produced analgesia as measured by the unilateral hot plate test. This effect peaked 1 h after injection, was prevented by the CCR8 antagonist R243 and was accompanied by a reduction of c-Fos expression in spinal neurons. Whereas blood leukocyte depletion did not modify it, analgesia was abolished by the microglial inhibitor minocycline, but not the astroglial inhibitor aminoadipate. Furthermore, antinociception remained unmodified by the coadministration of cannabinoid type 1 or 2 receptors antagonists. However, it was reversed by naloxone but not by selective blockade of mu- or delta-opioid receptors. The inhibitory effect induced by the selective kappa-opioid receptor antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine, and by an anti-dynorphin A 1-17 antibody indicates that analgesia evoked by spinal CCL1 is mediated by endogenous dynorphins acting on kappa-opioid receptors. CONCLUSIONS: Endogenous dynorphin and microglia behave as key players in heat thermal analgesia evoked by spinal CCL1 in mice.

A capsaicinoid-based soft drug, AG1529, for attenuating TRPV1-mediated histaminergic and inflammatory sensory neuron excitability.

TRPV1, a member of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family, is a nonselective calcium permeable ion channel gated by physical and chemical stimuli. In the skin, TRPV1 plays an important role in neurogenic inflammation, pain and pruritus associated to many dermatological diseases. Consequently, TRPV1 modulators could represent pharmacological tools to respond to important patient needs that still represent an unmet medical demand. Previously, we reported the design of capsaicinoid-based molecules that undergo dermal deactivation (soft drugs), thus preventing their long-term dermal accumulation. Here, we investigated the pharmacological properties of the lead antagonist, 2-((4-hydroxy-2-iodo-5-methoxybenzyl) amino)-2-oxoethyl dodecanoate (AG1529), on heterologously expressed human TRPV1 (hTRPV1), on nociceptor excitability and on an in vivo model of acute pruritus. We report that AG1529 competitively blocked capsaicin-evoked activation of hTRPV1 with micromolar potency, moderately affected pH-induced gating, and did not alter voltage- and heat-mediated responses. AG1529 displays modest receptor selectivity as it mildly blocked recombinant hTRPA1 and hTRPM8 channels. In primary cultures of rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, AG1529 potently reduced capsaicin-evoked neuronal firing. AG1529 exhibited lower potency on pH-evoked TRPV1 firing, and TRPA1-elicited nociceptor excitability. Furthermore, AG1529 abolished histaminergic and inflammation mediated TRPV1 sensitization in primary cultures of DRG neurons. Noteworthy, dermal wiping of AG1529, either in an acetone-based formulation or in an anhydrous ointment, dose-dependently attenuated acute histaminergic itch in a rodent model. This cutaneous anti-pruritic effect was devoid of the normal nocifensive action evoked by the burning sensation of capsaicin. Taken together, these preclinical results unveil the mode of action of AG1529 on TRPV1 channels and substantiate the tenet that this capsaicinoid-based soft drug is a promising candidate for drug development as a topical anti-pruritic and anti-inflammatory medication.

Spinal and peripheral mechanisms involved in the enhancement of morphine analgesia in acutely inflamed mice.

The analgesic effect induced by opiates is often potentiated during experimental inflammatory processes. We describe here that lower doses of systemic morphine are necessary to increase thermal withdrawal latencies measured in both hind paws of mice acutely inflamed with carrageenan than in healthy ones. This bilateral potentiation seems mediated through spinal opioid receptors since it is inhibited by the intrathecal (i.t.), but not intraplantar (i.pl.) administration of the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone-methiodide, and also appears when morphine is i.t. administered. Furthermore, the i.pl. administration of the nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, L-NMMA, or the K (ATP) (+) -channel blocker, glibenclamide, to carrageenan-inflamed mice inhibits the enhanced effect of systemic morphine in the paw that receives the injection of the drug, without affecting the potentiation observed in the contralateral one. The i.pl. administration of L-NMMA also partially antagonised the analgesic effect induced by i.t. morphine in inflamed mice. Finally, the increased analgesic effect evoked by the i.pl. administration of the NO donor SIN-1 either in the inflamed or in the contralateral paw of carrageenan-inflamed mice suggests that enhanced responsiveness to the peripheral analgesic effect of NO may be also underlying the bilateral potentiation of morphine-induced analgesia in acutely inflamed mice.

A low pKa ligand inhibits cancer-associated pain in mice by activating peripheral mu-opioid receptors.

The newly designed fentanyl derivative [( ±)-N-(3-fluoro-1-phenethylpiperidine-4-yl)-N-phenyl propionamide] (NFEPP) was recently shown to produce analgesia selectively via peripheral mu-opioid receptors (MOR) at acidic pH in rat inflamed tissues. Here, we examined the pH-dependency of NFEPP binding to brain MOR and its effects on bone cancer-induced pain in mice. The IC50 of NFEPP to displace bound [3H]-DAMGO was significantly higher compared to fentanyl at pH 7.4, but no differences were observed at pH 5.5 or 6.5. Intravenous NFEPP (30-100 nmol/kg) or fentanyl (17-30 nmol/kg) inhibited heat hyperalgesia in mice inoculated with B16-F10 melanoma cells. The peripherally-restricted opioid receptor antagonist naloxone-methiodide reversed the effect of NFEPP (100 nmol/kg), but not of fentanyl (30 nmol/kg). The antihyperalgesic effect of NFEPP was abolished by a selective MOR- (cyprodime), but not delta- (naltrindole) or kappa- (nor-binaltorphimine) receptor antagonists. Ten-fold higher doses of NFEPP than fentanyl induced maximal antinociception in mice without tumors, which was reversed by the non-restricted antagonist naloxone, but not by naloxone-methiodide. NFEPP also reduced heat hyperalgesia produced by fibrosarcoma- (NCTC 2472) or prostate cancer-derived (RM1) cells. These data demonstrate the increased affinity of NFEPP for murine MOR at low pH, and its ability to inhibit bone cancer-induced hyperalgesia through peripheral MOR. In mice, central opioid receptors may be activated by ten-fold higher doses of NFEPP.

Dual dose-related effects evoked by CCL4 on thermal nociception after gene delivery or exogenous administration in mice.

As recently described, the administration of extremely low doses (pg/kg) of CCL4 (Macrophage inflammatory protein 1ß, MIP-1ß) can induce antinociceptive effects in mice (García-Domínguez et al., 2019b). We describe here that hydrodynamic delivery of a plasmid containing CCL4 cDNA provokes a biphasic response consisting in an initial thermal hyperalgesic reaction for 8 days followed by analgesia at days 10-12, being both responses blocked after the administration of the CCR5 antagonist DAPTA. Both the luminiscence evoked in liver after the administration of a plasmid containing CCL4 and luciferase cDNAs and the hepatic concentration of CCL4 measured by ELISA were maximal 4 days after plasmid administration and markedly diminished at day 10. A dose-effect curve including a wide dose range of exogenous CCL4 revealed thermal analgesia after the administration of 10-100 pg/kg whereas 1000 times higher doses (30-100 ng/kg) induced, instead, thermal hyperalgesia inhibited by DAPTA. This hyperalgesia was absent in mice with reduced white blood cells after cyclophosphamide treatment, thus supporting the involvement of circulating leukocytes. A multiarray bioluminescent assay revealed increased plasma levels of IL-1α, CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL13, IL-16 and TIMP-1 in mice treated with 100 ng/kg of CCL4. The hyperalgesic response evoked by CCL4 was prevented by IL-1R, CXCR2 or CCR2 antagonists or by the neutralization of CXCL13 or IL-16, but not TIMP-1, with selective antibodies. The administration of the anti-IL-16 antibody was the unique treatment able to convert hyperalgesia evoked by 100 ng/kg of CCL4 in an analgesic effect. The ability of IL-16 to evoke hypernociception was confirmed by studying the response to its exogenous administration (10-30 ng/kg). In summary, the present results demonstrate that CCL4 induces a dual modulation of nociception and describe some mechanisms involved in the hyperalgesic response evoked by this chemokine.

Highly functionalized ß-lactams and 2-ketopiperazines as TRPM8 antagonists with antiallodynic activity.

The cool sensor transient receptor potential melastatin channel 8 (TRPM8) is highly expressed in trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia, playing a key role in cold hypersensitivity associated to different peripheral neuropathies. Moreover, these channels are aberrantly expressed in different cancers, and seem to participate in tumor progression, survival and invasion. Accordingly, the search for potent and selective TRPM8 modulators attracted great interest in recent years. We describe new heterocyclic TRPM8 antagonist chemotypes derived from N-cloroalkyl phenylalaninol-Phe conjugates. The cyclization of these conjugates afforded highly substituted ß-lactams and/or 2-ketopiperazine (KP) derivatives, with regioselectivity depending on the N-chloroalkyl group and the configuration. These derivatives behave as TRPM8 antagonists in the Ca2+ microfluorometry assay, and confirmed electrophysiologically for the best enantiopure ß-lactams 24a and 29a (IC50, 1.4 and 0.8 µM). Two putative binding sites by the pore zone, different from those found for typical agonists and antagonists, were identified by in silico studies for both ß-lactams and KPs. ß-Lactams 24a and 29a display antitumor activity in different human tumor cell lines (micromolar potencies, A549, HT29, PSN1), but correlation with TRPM8 expression could not be established. Additionally, compound 24a significantly reduced cold allodynia in a mice model of oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy.

Exploration of TRPM8 Binding Sites by ß-Carboline-Based Antagonists and Their In Vitro Characterization and In Vivo Analgesic Activities.

Transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8) ion channel represents a valuable pharmacological option for several therapeutic areas. Here, a series of conformationally restricted derivatives of the previously described TRPM8 antagonist N,N'-dibenzyl tryptophan 4 were prepared and characterized in vitro by Ca2+-imaging and patch-clamp electrophysiology assays. Molecular modeling studies led to identification of a broad and well-defined interaction network of these derivatives inside the TRPM8 binding site, underlying their antagonist activity. The (5R,11aS)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-(4-fluorobenzyl)-5,6,11,11a-tetrahydro-1H-imidazo[1',5':1,6]pyrido[3,4-b]indole-1,3(2H)-dione (31a) emerged as a potent (IC50 = 4.10 ± 1.2 nM), selective, and metabolically stable TRPM8 antagonist. In vivo, 31a showed significant target coverage in an icilin-induced WDS (at 11.5 mg/kg ip), an oxaliplatin-induced cold allodynia (at 10-30 µg sc), and CCI-induced thermal hyperalgesia (at 11.5 mg/kg ip) mice models. These results confirm the tryptophan moiety as a solid pharmacophore template for the design of highly potent modulators of TRPM8-mediated activities.

Structure-Based Design of Novel Biphenyl Amide Antagonists of Human Transient Receptor Potential Cation Channel Subfamily M Member 8 Channels with Potential Implications in the Treatment of Sensory Neuropathies.

Structure-activity relationship studies of a reported menthol-based transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 8 channel (TRPM8) antagonist, guided by computational simulations and structure-based design, uncovers a novel series of TRPM8 antagonists with >10-fold selectivity versus related TRP subtypes. Spiro[4.5]decan-8-yl analogue 14 inhibits icilin-evoked Ca2+ entry in HEK-293 cells stably expressing human TRPM8 (hTRPM8) with an IC50 of 2.4 ± 1.0 nM, while in whole-cell patch-clamp recordings this analogue inhibits menthol-evoked currents with a hTRPM8 IC50 of 64 ± 2 nM. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of compound 14 in our homology model of hTRPM8 suggest that this antagonist forms extensive hydrophobic contacts within the orthosteric site. In the wet dog shakes (WDS) assay, compound 14 dose-dependently blocks icilin-triggered shaking behaviors in mice. Upon local administration, compound 14 dose dependently inhibits cold allodynia evoked by the chemotherapy oxaliplatin in a murine model of peripheral neuropathy at microgram doses. Our findings suggest that 14 and other biphenyl amide analogues within our series can find utility as potent antagonist chemical probes derived from (-)-menthol as well as small molecule therapeutic scaffolds for chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) and other sensory neuropathies.

In Vivo Methods to Study ThermoTRP Channels in Rodents.

Ion channels participate in several biological processes. Among these channels, the ionotropic TRP family is the most prominent group being TRPV1 the most studied. The activation of these channels can elicit pain sensation; thus, the development of blockers for these channels is receiving increasing attention. TRP channels are the responsible for thermonociception but also, they are involved in osmolarity, taste, and chemical substances perception such as capsaicin or menthol which can evoke pain. The needed of testing new compounds implies the use of animal models of pain and nociceptive tests in order to evaluate their potential efficacy for the treatment of painful symptoms. Several methods have been developed. Here, I describe the standard, current, and available tests to explore nociception in rodents, especially when thermal or mechanical stimuli are applied.

1-(2',5'-Dihydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-propanone (RGM079): A Positive Allosteric Modulator of α7 Nicotinic Receptors with Analgesic and Neuroprotective Activity.

Acetylcholine α7 nicotinic receptors are widely expressed in the brain, where they are involved in the central processing of pain as well as in neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory processes. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) show the advantage of allowing the selective regulation of different subtypes of acetylcholine receptors without directly interacting with the agonist binding site. Here, we report the preparation and biological activity of a fluoro-containing compound, 1-(2',5'-dihydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-propanone (8, RGM079), that behaves as a potent PAM of the α7 receptors and has a balanced pharmacokinetic profile and antioxidant properties comparable or even higher than well-known natural polyphenols. In addition, compound RGM079 shows neuroprotective properties in Alzheimer's disease (AD)-toxicity related models. Thus, it causes a concentration-dependent neuroprotective effect against the toxicity induced by okadaic acid (OA) in the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Similarly, in primary cultures of rat cortical neurons, RGM079 is able to restore the cellular viability after exposure to OA and amyloid peptide Aß1-42, with cell death almost completely prevented at 10 and 30 µM, respectively. Finally, compound RGM079 shows in vivo analgesic activity in the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced paw inflammation model after intraperitoneal administration.