Effects of substitution dietary guidelines targeted at prevention of IHD on dietary intake and risk factors in middle-aged Danish adults: the Diet and Prevention of Ischemic Heart Disease: a Translational Approach (DIPI) randomised controlled trial.

The objective was to investigate the effects of substitution (SUB) dietary guidelines (DG) targeted at the prevention of IHD on dietary intake and IHD risk factors in Danish adults with minimum one self-assessed IHD risk factor. A 6-month single-blinded parallel randomised controlled trial with a follow-up at month 12 included 219 subjects (median age 51 years, 59 % female, 73 % overweight or obese) randomised into an SUB DG, an official (OFF) DG or a control group following their habitual diet (HAB). Participants in the DG intervention groups received bi-weekly reminders of their DG and recipes for dishes and the HAB group received a greeting. Dietary intake and fasting blood, anthropometric and blood pressure measurements were obtained at baseline, month 6 and month 12. Linear regression analyses were applied. At month 6, when compared with the HAB, the SUB had a greater impact on the extent of dietary changes with increased intake of whole grains, dietary fibre and low fibre vegetables compared with the OFF DG, and both DG groups had similar decreased percentage of energy (E%) intake from SFA. The extent of dietary changes was similar at month 12. No overall significant changes from baseline were found in blood pressure, anthropometrics and IHD risk markers. In conclusion, both SUB and OFF DG resulted in cardioprotective dietary changes. However, neither the SUB nor the OFF DG resulted in any overall effects on the selected intermediate risk factors for IHD.

Associations between adherence to the Danish Food-Based Dietary Guidelines and cardiometabolic risk factors in a Danish adult population: the DIPI study.

Diet is recognised as one modifiable lifestyle factor for ischaemic heart disease (IHD). We aimed at investigating the associations between adherence to the Danish Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) indicated by a Dietary Quality Index (DQI) and selected cardiometabolic risk factors in a cross-sectional study with 219 Danish adult participants (59 %women; age 31-65years) with a minimum of one self-rated risk marker of IHD. Information regarding diet was obtained using web-based dietary assessment software and adherence to the Danish FBDG was expressed by a DQI calculated from 5 food and nutrient indicators (whole grain, fish, fruit and vegetables, energy from saturated fat and from added sugar). Background information, blood samples and anthropometrics were collected and blood pressure was measured. Linear regression analyses were used to evaluate the association between DQI and cardiometabolic risk factors. DQI was inversely associated with LDL:HDL ratio and TAG (-0·089 per unit; 95 % CI -0·177, -0·002 and -5 % per unit; 95 % CI -9, 0, respectively) and positively associated with HDL-cholesterol (0·047 mmol/l per unit; 95 % CI 0·007, 0·088). For men, DQI was inversely associated with BMI (-3 %per unit; 95 % CI -5, -1), trunk fat (-1 % per unit; 95 % CI -2, -1), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (-30 % per unit; 95 % CI -41, -16 %), HbA1c (-0·09 % per unit; 95 % CI -0·14, -0·04), insulin (-13 % per unit; 95 % CI -19, -7) and homoeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance (-14 % per unit; 95 % CI -21, -7). In women, DQI was positively associated with systolic blood pressure (2·6 mmHg per unit; 95 % CI 0·6, 4·6). In conclusion, higher adherence to the current Danish FBDG was associated with a more beneficial cardiometabolic risk profile in a Danish adult population with a minimum of one self-rated risk factor for IHD.

Intake and sources of gluten in 20- to 75-year-old Danish adults: a national dietary survey.

PURPOSE: Celiac disease, an immunological response triggered by gluten, affects ~1 % of the Western population. Information concerning gluten intake in the general population is scarce. We determined intake of gluten from wheat, barley, rye and oat in the Danish National Survey of Diet and Physical Activity 2005-2008. The study population comprised a random cross-sectional sample of 1494 adults 20-75 years, selected from the Danish Civil Registration System. METHODS: Protein content in wheat, rye, barley and oat was determined from the National Danish Food Composition Table and multiplied with the amount of cereal used in recipes. Amount of gluten was calculated as amount of cereal protein ×0.80 for wheat and oat, ×0.65 for rye and ×0.50 for barley. Dietary intake was recorded daily during seven consecutive days in pre-coded food diaries with open-answer possibilities. RESULTS: Mean total gluten intake was 10.4 ± 4.4 g/day (10th-90th percentiles; 5.4-16.2 g/day), in men 12.0 ± 4.6 g/day and 9.0 ± 3.4 g/day in women. It was higher among men than among women in all age groups (20-75 years; P < 0.0001); however, this difference was eliminated when adjusting for energy intake. Intake of different gluten sources tended to be higher in men than in women with the exception of gluten from barley. Total gluten intake decreased with increasing age (P < 0.0001) as did gluten intake from wheat (P < 0.0001), whereas intake of gluten from rye (P < 0.0001) and barley (P = 0.001) increased with increasing age, also when adjusted for energy intake or body weight. CONCLUSION: This study presents representative population-based data on gluten intake in Danish adults. Total gluten intake decreased with increasing age.

Intake of macro- and micronutrients in Danish vegans.

BACKGROUND: Since information about macro- and micronutrient intake among vegans is limited we aimed to determine and evaluate their dietary and supplementary intake. METHODS: Seventy 18-61 years old Danish vegans completed a four-day weighed food record from which their daily intake of macro- and micronutrients was assessed and subsequently compared to an age-range-matched group of 1,257 omnivorous individuals from the general Danish population. Moreover, the vegan dietary and supplementary intake was compared to the 2012 Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR). RESULTS: Dietary intake differed significantly between vegans and the general Danish population in all measured macro- and micronutrients (p < 0.05), except for energy intake among women and intake of carbohydrates among men. For vegans the intake of macro- and micronutrients (including supplements) did not reach the NNR for protein, vitamin D, iodine and selenium. Among vegan women vitamin A intake also failed to reach the recommendations. With reference to the NNR, the dietary content of added sugar, sodium and fatty acids, including the ratio of PUFA to SFA, was more favorable among vegans. CONCLUSIONS: At the macronutrient level, the diet of Danish vegans is in better accordance with the NNR than the diet of the general Danish population. At the micronutrient level, considering both diet and supplements, the vegan diet falls short in certain nutrients, suggesting a need for greater attention toward ensuring recommended daily intake of specific vitamins and minerals.

Differences in Danish children's diet quality on weekdays v. weekend days.

OBJECTIVE: To compare differences in children's diet quality on weekdays (Monday-Thursday), Fridays and weekend days. DESIGN: A representative cross-sectional study in which participants completed a 7 d pre-coded food record. Mean intakes of energy, macronutrients and selected food items (g/10 MJ) as well as energy density were compared between weekdays, Fridays and weekend days for each gender in three age groups (4-6, 7-10 and 11-14 years) using Tobit analysis to account for zero intakes. SETTING: The Danish National Survey of Dietary Habits and Physical Activity 2003-2008. SUBJECTS: Children (n 784; 49·9 % boys) aged 4-14 years. RESULTS: For both genders in all age groups (P < 0·05), energy intake was higher during weekends than on weekdays, and intakes of sugar-sweetened beverages and white bread were higher, whereas intake of rye bread was lower. This contributed to a higher percentage of energy from added sugars, a lower fibre content and a higher energy density on weekend days v. weekdays. In children aged 4-6 and 7-10 years, the diet on weekend days was also characterized by higher intakes of sweets and chocolate and lower intakes of fruit and vegetables. Overall, the diet on Fridays appeared as a mix of the diets on weekdays and weekend days. CONCLUSIONS: Significant differences and distinct characteristic patterns were found in children's diet quality during weekdays, Fridays and weekend days. The present study suggests that in prevention of childhood overweight and obesity, more attention should be paid to the higher energy intake, especially from sugar-rich foods and beverages, on Fridays and weekend days.

Short-term effects of replacing milk with cola beverages on insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin-glucose metabolism: a 10 d interventional study in young men.

In the Western world, a trend towards increased consumption of carbonated soft drinks combined with a decreasing intake of milk is observed. This may affect circulating insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and fasting insulin, as seen in pre-pubertal children. The present study was designed to reflect the trend of replacing milk with carbonated beverages in young men and to study the effects of this replacement on IGF-I, IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), IGF-I:IGFBP-3 and glucose-insulin metabolism. A randomised, controlled crossover intervention study, in which eleven men aged 22-29 years were given a low-Ca diet in two 10 d periods with 10 d washout in between. In one period, they drank 2.5 litres of Coca Cola(R) per day and the other period 2.5 litres of semi-skimmed milk. Serum IGF-I, IGFBP-3 (RIA), insulin (fluoro immunoassay) and glucose (Cobas) were determined at baseline and end point of each intervention period. Insulin resistance and beta-cell function were calculated with the homeostasis model assessment. A decrease in serum IGF-I was observed in the cola period compared with the milk period (P < 0.05). No effects of treatment were observed on IGFBP-3, IGF-I:IGFBP-3, insulin, glucose, insulin resistance or beta-cell function. The present study demonstrates that high intake of cola over a 10 d period decreases total IGF-I compared with a high intake of milk, with no effect on glucose-insulin metabolism in adult men. It is unknown whether this is a transient phenomenon or whether it has long-term consequences.

Choice of foods and ingredients for moderately malnourished children 6 months to 5 years of age.

There is consensus on how to treat severe malnutrition, but there is no agreement on the most cost-effective way to treat infants and young children with moderate malnutrition who consume cereal-dominated diets. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the nutritional qualities of relevant foods and ingredients in relation to the nutritional needs of children with moderate malnutrition and to identify research needs. The following general aspects are covered: energy density, macronutrient content and quality, minerals and vitamins, bioactive substances, antinutritional factors, and food processing. The nutritional values of the main food groups--cereals, legumes, pulses, roots, vegetables, fruits, and animal foods--are discussed. The special beneficial qualities of animal-source foods, which contain high levels of minerals important for growth, high-quality protein, and no antinutrients or fibers, are emphasized. In cereal-dominated diets, the plant foods should be processed to reduce the contents of antinutrients and fibers. Provision of a high fat content to increase energy density is emphasized; however, the content of micronutrients should also be increased to maintain nutrient density. The source of fat should be selected to supply optimal amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially n-3 fatty acids. Among multiple research needs, the following are highlighted: to identify the minimum quantity of animal foods needed to support acceptable child growth and development, to examine the nutritional gains of reducing contents of antinutrients and fibers in cereal- and legume-based diets, and to examine the role of fat quality, especially PUFA content and ratios, in children with moderate malnutrition.

The use of whey or skimmed milk powder in fortified blended foods for vulnerable groups.

Fortified blended foods (FBF), especially corn soy blend, are used as food aid for millions of people worldwide, especially malnourished individuals and vulnerable groups. There are only a few studies evaluating the effect of FBF on health outcomes, and the potential negative effect of antinutrients has not been examined. Different lines of evidence suggest that dairy proteins have beneficial effects on vulnerable groups. Here we review the evidence on the effects of adding whey or skimmed milk powder to FBF used for malnourished infants and young children or people living with HIV or AIDS. Adding whey or skimmed milk powder to FBF improves the protein quality, allowing a reduction in total amount of protein, which could have potential metabolic advantages. It also allows for a reduced content of soy and cereal and thereby a reduction of potential antinutrients. It is possible that adding milk could improve weight gain, linear growth, and recovery from malnutrition, but this needs to be confirmed. Bioactive factors in whey might have beneficial effects on the immune system and muscle synthesis, but evidence from vulnerable groups is lacking. Milk proteins will improve flavor, which is important for acceptability in vulnerable groups. The most important disadvantage is a considerable increase in price. Adding 10-15% milk powder would double the price, which means that such a product should be used only in well-defined vulnerable groups with special needs. The potential beneficial effects of adding milk protein and lack of evidence in vulnerable groups call for randomized intervention studies.

A low-gluten diet induces changes in the intestinal microbiome of healthy Danish adults.

Adherence to a low-gluten diet has become increasingly common in parts of the general population. However, the effects of reducing gluten-rich food items including wheat, barley and rye cereals in healthy adults are unclear. Here, we undertook a randomised, controlled, cross-over trial involving 60 middle-aged Danish adults without known disorders with two 8-week interventions comparing a low-gluten diet (2 g gluten per day) and a high-gluten diet (18 g gluten per day), separated by a washout period of at least six weeks with habitual diet (12 g gluten per day). We find that, in comparison with a high-gluten diet, a low-gluten diet induces moderate changes in the intestinal microbiome, reduces fasting and postprandial hydrogen exhalation, and leads to improvements in self-reported bloating. These observations suggest that most of the effects of a low-gluten diet in non-coeliac adults may be driven by qualitative changes in dietary fibres.

Protein intake at 9 mo of age is associated with body size but not with body fat in 10-y-old Danish children.

BACKGROUND: During the complementary feeding period, infants shift from a daily protein intake (PI) of approximately 1 g/kg body wt to an intake 3-4 times as high. A high PI probably has both endocrine and physiologic effects and may increase the risk of obesity. OBJECTIVE: We examined the associations between PI in infancy and body size and composition in late childhood. DESIGN: We conducted an observational cohort study of 142 Danish healthy term infants (63 boys) born during 1987-1988. At 9 mo of age, diet, weight, length, skinfold thicknesses, insulin-like growth factor I, and serum urea nitrogen were determined. At 10 y of age, 105 children (51 boys) participated in a follow-up study. Diet, weight, height, skinfold thicknesses, percentage of body fat (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), insulin-like growth factor I, and serum urea nitrogen were determined. RESULTS: At 9 mo of age, PI (in g/d and percentage of energy) was strongly correlated with body size (length and weight) but not with measures of adiposity. PI at 9 mo of age was positively associated with height and weight but not with percentage of body fat at 10 y of age. Inclusion of parental body size in the models did not change the associations, but the significant associations were attenuated when body size at 9 mo of age was included. CONCLUSIONS: PI in infancy seems to stimulate early growth. This might explain part of the association between early PI and body size at 10 y of age, but a continuous effect of protein on growth during childhood cannot be excluded. PI in infancy was not associated with any measure of body fat at 10 y of age.

Animal protein intake, serum insulin-like growth factor I, and growth in healthy 2.5-y-old Danish children.

BACKGROUND: Studies from developing countries indicate that intake of animal protein, especially of milk, is associated with greater velocity of linear growth in childhood. Whether the same association exists in industrialized countries, where protein intake is high, is not clear. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to examine associations between protein intake, serum insulin-like growth factor I (sIGF-I) concentrations, and height in healthy children. DESIGN: We analyzed the associations between protein intake, sIGF-I concentrations, and height in 2.5-y-old children. Diet (7-d record) and sIGF-I (radioimmunoassay) data were available from 90 children (54 boys). RESULTS: The 10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles of protein intake were 2.4, 2.9, and 4.0 g. kg(-1). d(-1), respectively; 63% was animal protein. In multiple linear regressions with adjustment for sex and weight, height (cm) was positively associated with intakes of animal protein (g/d) [0.10 +/- 0.038 (b +/- SE); P = 0.01] and milk (0.0047 +/- 0.002; P = 0.007), but not with those of vegetable protein or meat. The sIGF-I concentration was significantly associated with intakes of animal protein (1.4 +/- 0.53; P = 0.01) and milk (0.049 +/- 0.024; P = 0.045), but not with those of vegetable protein or meat. sIGF-I concentrations were positively associated with height (0.019 +/- 0.008; P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Milk intake was positively associated with sIGF-I concentrations and height. An increase in milk intake from 200 to 600 mL/d corresponded to a 30% increase in circulating IGF-I. This suggests that milk compounds have a stimulating effect on sIGF-I concentrations and, thereby, on growth.

Gluten intake in 6-36-month-old Danish infants and children based on a national survey.

Coeliac disease (CD) affects about 1 % of the general population. Information concerning gluten intake in the general population is scarce. In particular, variation in gluten intake during the complementary feeding period may be an independent risk factor in CD pathogenesis. We determined the intake of gluten from wheat, barley, rye and oats in a cross-sectional National Danish Survey of Dietary Habits among Infants and Young Children (2006-2007). The study population comprised a random sample of 1743 children aged 6-36 months, recruited from the National Danish Civil Registry. The protein contents from wheat, rye, barley and oats were found in the National Danish Food Composition Table, and multiplied with the amounts in the recipes. The amounts of gluten were calculated as the amount of cereal protein × 0·80 for wheat and oats, ×0·65 for rye and ×0·50 for barley. Dietary intake was recorded daily for seven consecutive days in pre-coded food records supplemented with open-answer possibilities. Gluten intake increased with age (P < 0·0001). Oats were introduced first, rapidly outpaced by wheat, the intake of which continued to increase with age, whereas oats started to decrease at 12 months. Boys had a higher intake of energy (P ≤ 0·0001) and all types of gluten, except for barley (P ≤ 0·87). In 8-10-month-old (P < 0·0001) and 10-12-month-old (P = 0·007), but not in 6-8-month-old infants (P = 0·331), non-breast-fed infants had higher total gluten intake than partially breast-fed infants. In conclusion, this study presents representative population-based data on gluten intake in Danish infants and young children.

Reporting accuracy of packed lunch consumption among Danish 11-year-olds differ by gender.

BACKGROUND: Packed lunch is the dominant lunch format in many countries including Denmark. School lunch is consumed unsupervised, and self-reported recalls are appropriate in the school setting. However, little is known about the accuracy of recalls in relation to packed lunch. OBJECTIVE: To assess the qualitative recall accuracy of self-reported consumption of packed lunch among Danish 11-year-old children in relation to gender and dietary assessment method. DESIGN: A cross-sectional dietary recall study of packed lunch consumption. Digital images (DIs) served as an objective reference method to determine food items consumed. Recalls were collected with a lunch recall questionnaire (LRQ) comprising an open-ended recall (OE-Q) and a pre-coded food group prompted recall (PC-Q). Individual interviews (INTs) were conducted successively. The number of food items was identified and accuracy was calculated as match rates (% identified by DIs and reported correctly) and intrusion rates (% not identified by DIs but reported) were determined. SETTING AND SUBJECTS: Three Danish public schools from Copenhagen. A total of 114 Danish 11-year-old children, mean (SE) age=11.1 (0.03), and body mass index=18.2 (0.26). RESULTS: The reference (DIs) showed that girls consumed a higher number of food items than boys [mean (SE) 5.4 (0.25) vs. 4.6 (0.29) items (p=0.05)]. The number of food items recalled differed between genders with OE-Q recalls (p=0.005) only. Girls' interview recalls were more accurate than boys' with higher match rates (p=0.04) and lower intrusion rates (p=0.05). Match rates ranged from 67-90% and intrusion rates ranged from 13-39% with little differences between girls and boys using the OE-Q and PC-Q methods. CONCLUSION: Dietary recall validation studies should not only consider match rates as an account of accuracy. Intrusions contribute to over-reporting in non-validation studies, and future studies should address recall accuracy and inaccuracies in relation to gender and recall method.

Casein improves brachial and central aortic diastolic blood pressure in overweight adolescents: a randomised, controlled trial.

Arterial stiffness, blood pressure (BP) and blood lipids may be improved by milk in adults and the effects may be mediated via proteins. However, limited is known about the effects of milk proteins on central aortic BP and no studies have examined the effects in children. Therefore, the present trial examined the effect of milk and milk proteins on brachial and central aortic BP, blood lipids, inflammation and arterial stiffness in overweight adolescents. A randomised controlled trial was conducted in 193 overweight adolescents aged 12-15 years. They were randomly assigned to drink 1 litre of water, skimmed milk, whey or casein for 12 weeks. The milk-based test drinks contained 35 g protein/l. The effects were compared with the water group and a pretest control group consisting of thirty-two of the adolescents followed 12 weeks before the start of the intervention. Outcomes were brachial and central aortic BP, pulse wave velocity and augmentation index, serum C-reactive protein and blood lipids. Brachial and central aortic diastolic BP (DBP) decreased by 2·7% (P = 0·036) and 2·6 % (P = 0·048), respectively, within the casein group and the changes were significantly different from those of the pretest control group (P = 0·040 and P = 0·034, respectively). There was a significant increase in central aortic DBP, and in brachial and central systolic BP in the whey group compared with the water group (P = 0·003, P = 0·009 and P = 0·002, respectively). There were no changes in measures of arterial stiffness or blood lipid concentrations. A high intake of casein improves DBP in overweight adolescents. Thus, casein may be beneficial for younger overweight subjects in terms of reducing the long-term risk of CVD. In contrast, whey protein seems to increase BP compared with drinking water; however, water may be considered an active control group.

Relationship between sleep duration and dietary intake in 4- to 14-year-old Danish children.

A negative association between sleep duration and BMI has been observed in children. However, knowledge about the association between sleep duration and diet is limited. The objective was to examine the association between sleep duration and intake of foods and nutrients in children. In the present cross-sectional study, dietary intake and sleep duration were recorded by the parents for seven consecutive days in a food and sleep record in a representative sample of 802 4- to 14-year-old children. No sex differences were found regarding age and sleep duration. Sleep duration was negatively correlated to age (ρ = -0·68; P < 0·001) and BMI (ρ = -0·41; P < 0·001). In multiple linear regression analyses, sleep duration was not associated with energy intake (b = -0·015; P = 0·20), but there was a trend towards a positive association with intake of dietary fibre (b = 0·006; P = 0·05) and vegetables (b = 0·011; P = 0·05), and a negative association with intake of poultry (b = -0·002; P = 0·02), and a trend towards a negative association with intake of liquid 'discretionary calories' (b = -0·01; P = 0·05). Furthermore, in a comparison of dietary intake between age-dependent tertiles of sleep duration, only intake of liquid 'discretionary calories' was significantly lower in long sleepers than in short and medium sleepers (P = 0·03). In conclusion, sleep duration was not associated with energy intake and the proposal that children with short sleep duration have less healthy eating habits than children with longer sleep duration was only weakly supported by the present findings.

Milk-derived proteins and minerals alter serum osteocalcin in prepubertal boys after 7 days.

We have previously shown that at equal protein content, milk, but not meat, decreased bone turnover in boys. This suggested that milk-derived components are important for bone metabolism. In the present study, we hypothesized that milk-derived proteins (whey and casein) affect bone turnover during growth depending on the content of milk minerals (calcium and phosphorus). This was a randomized, parallel, double-blind study. Eight-year-old boys (n = 57) received 1 of 4 milk drinks: whey protein with low or high content of minerals, or casein protein with low or high content of minerals. The amount of whey and casein was identical to their content in 1.5 L of milk. We measured serum osteocalcin (sOC), bone-specific alkaline phosphatase, and C-terminal telopeptides of type I collagen (immunoassay) and estimated dietary intake (3-day weighed food record) at baseline and after 7 days. Only sOC was significantly affected by the treatments (P < .05). There was a significant interaction between milk-derived proteins and minerals with regard to sOC (P = .01). The intake of milk drinks containing whey increased sOC at the low content of minerals, whereas it decreased sOC at the high content of minerals (P < .05). In contrast, milk drinks containing casein increased sOC both at the low and at the high contents of minerals. In conclusion, whey and casein (corresponding to their content in 1.5 L of milk) differently affect sOC in 8-year-old boys depending on the content of milk minerals, but do not seem to affect other markers for bone turnover.

Early programming of the IGF-I axis: negative association between IGF-I in infancy and late adolescence in a 17-year longitudinal follow-up study of healthy subjects.

BACKGROUND: IGF-I is a major regulator of growth, influenced primarily by diet in infancy and primarily by GH in childhood. Breastfed infants have lower IGF-I levels compared to formula fed and tend to be shorter. The higher protein content of infant formula has a stimulatory effect on IGF-I production. Conversely, studies suggest that later in childhood, those breastfed are taller and have higher IGF-I levels. Therefore, it has been suggested that the IGF-I axis may be programmed by diet during infancy. The association between IGF-I in infancy and later life is not known. OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between IGF-I in infancy and adolescence. DESIGN: Infants (109) from the observational Copenhagen cohort study. METHODS: Serum-IGF-I was measured during infancy (2, 6, and 9 months) and at follow-up at 17 years. Associations were examined by correlation tests and linear regression controlling for gender, breastfeeding, and other covariates. Likelihood ratio test based on residual log likelihood was applied for analysis including all measurements during infancy. RESULTS: There was an inverse association between IGF-I at 9 months and 17 years (r=-0.39, P=0.014, and n=40). A 1 ng/ml higher IGF-I concentration at 9 months corresponded to 0.95 ng/ml lower IGF-I concentration at 17 years. IGF-I levels at 2 and 6 months were not significantly associated with IGF-I at 17 years, but the estimated directions were negative. These associations were not changed when adjusted for breastfeeding and other covariates except IGF-I at 2 months which was significantly negatively associated with IGF-I at 17 years (P=0.030) corresponding to a 0.96 ng/ml lower IGF-I concentration at 17 years per ng/ml IGF-I at 2 months. Inclusion of all measurements during infancy showed a negative association with 17-year values (r=-0.26, P=0.043, and n=109). CONCLUSION: The results support the hypothesis that the IGF-I axis can be programmed early in life.

Nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabonomics reveals strong sex effect on plasma metabolism in 17-year-old Scandinavians and correlation to retrospective infant plasma parameters.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabonomics was carried out on plasma samples from a total of seventy-five 17-year-old Danes to investigate the impact of key parameters such as sex, height, weight, and body mass index on the plasma metabolite profile in a normal, healthy population. Principal component analysis identified sex to have a large impact on the NMR plasma metabolome, whereas no apparent effects of height, weight, and body mass index were found. Partial least square regression discriminant analysis and quantification of relative metabolite concentrations by integration of NMR signals revealed that the sex effect included differences in plasma lipoproteins (mainly high-density lipoprotein), glucose, choline, and amino acid content. Accordingly, the present study suggests a higher lipid synthesis in young women than young men and a higher protein turnover in young men compared with women. Data on plasma content of triglyceride, lipoprotein fractions, and cholesterol at an age of 9 months were available for selected individuals (n = 40); and partial least square regressions revealed correlations between these infant parameters and the NMR plasma metabolome at an age of 17 years. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates the feasibility of NMR-based metabonomics for obtaining a deeper insight into interindividual differences in metabolism and for exploring relationships between parameters measured early in life and metabolic status at a later stage.

Whole cow's milk: why, what and when?

There are differences between at what age industrialized countries recommend that cow's milk can be introduced to infants. Most countries recommend waiting until 12 months of age, but according to recommendations from some countries (e.g. Canada, Sweden and Denmark) cow's milk can be introduced from 9 or 10 months. The main reason for delaying introduction is to prevent iron deficiency as cow's milk is a poor iron source. In one study mainly milk intake above 500 ml/day caused iron deficiency. Cow's milk has a very low content of linoleic acid (LA), but a more favorable LA/alpha-linolenic ratio, which is likely to be the reason why red blood cell docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels seem to be more favorable in infants drinking cow's milk compared to infants drinking infant formula that is not supplemented with DHA. It has been suggested that cow's milk intake can affect the later risk of obesity, blood pressure and linear growth, but the evidence is not convincing. There are also considerable differences in recommendations on at what age cow's milk with reduced fat intake can be introduced. The main consideration is that low-fat milk might limit energy intake and thereby growth, but the potential effects on development of early obesity should also be considered. Recommendations about the age for introduction of cow's milk should take into consideration traditions and feeding patterns in the population, especially the intake of iron and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and should also give recommendations on the volume of milk.