Analysis of merged whole blood transcriptomic datasets to identify circulating molecular biomarkers of feed efficiency in growing pigs.

BACKGROUND: Improving feed efficiency (FE) is an important goal due to its economic and environmental significance for farm animal production. The FE phenotype is complex and based on the measurements of the individual feed consumption and average daily gain during a test period, which is costly and time-consuming. The identification of reliable predictors of FE is a strategy to reduce phenotyping efforts. RESULTS: Gene expression data of the whole blood from three independent experiments were combined and analyzed by machine learning algorithms to propose molecular biomarkers of FE traits in growing pigs. These datasets included Large White pigs from two lines divergently selected for residual feed intake (RFI), a measure of net FE, and in which individual feed conversion ratio (FCR) and blood microarray data were available. Merging the three datasets allowed considering FCR values (Mean = 2.85; Min = 1.92; Max = 5.00) for a total of n = 148 pigs, with a large range of body weight (15 to 115 kg) and different test period duration (2 to 9 weeks). Random forest (RF) and gradient tree boosting (GTB) were applied on the whole blood transcripts (26,687 annotated molecular probes) to identify the most important variables for binary classification on RFI groups and a quantitative prediction of FCR, respectively. The dataset was split into learning (n = 74) and validation sets (n = 74). With iterative steps for variable selection, about three hundred's (328 to 391) molecular probes participating in various biological pathways, were identified as important predictors of RFI or FCR. With the GTB algorithm, simpler models were proposed combining 34 expressed unique genes to classify pigs into RFI groups (100% of success), and 25 expressed unique genes to predict FCR values (R2 = 0.80, RMSE = 8%). The accuracy performance of RF models was slightly lower in classification and markedly lower in regression. CONCLUSION: From small subsets of genes expressed in the whole blood, it is possible to predict the binary class and the individual value of feed efficiency. These predictive models offer good perspectives to identify animals with higher feed efficiency in precision farming applications.

Response of adult stem cell populations to a high-fat/high-fiber diet in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue of growing pigs divergently selected for feed efficiency.

PURPOSE: The control of body composition by genetics and dietary nutrients is of the upmost importance for both human and animal physiology. Adult stem cells (aSC) may represent a relevant level of tissue adaptation. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of macronutrient composition on aSC populations isolated from adipose tissue or muscle in growing pigs. METHODS: Pigs from two lines divergently selected for feed efficiency were fed ad libitum either a high-fat/high-fiber (HF) diet or a low-fat/low-fiber (LF) diet (n = 6 per line and diet) from 74 to 132 days of age. Stroma vascular cells were isolated from adipose tissue and muscle and characterized with cell surface markers. RESULTS: In both lines, pigs fed the HF diet exhibited a reduced adiposity (P < 0.001) compared with pigs fed the LF diet. In the four groups, CD90 and PDGFRα markers were predominantly expressed in adipose cells, whereas CD90 and CD56 markers were highly expressed in muscle cells. In adipose tissue, the proportions of CD56+/PDGFRα + and of CD90+/PDGFRα + cells were lower (P < 0.05) in HF pigs than in LF pigs. On the opposite, in muscle, these proportions were higher (P < 0.001) in HF pigs. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that dietary nutrients affected the relative proportions of CD56+/PDGFRα + cells with opposite effects between muscle and adipose tissue. These cell populations exhibiting adipogenic potential in adipose tissue and myogenic potential in muscle may be a target to modulate body composition.

Prospects for sustainability of pig production in relation to climate change and novel feed resources.

Pig production systems provide multiple benefits to humans. However, the global increase in meat consumption has profound consequences for our earth. This perspective describes two alternative scenarios for improving the sustainability of future pig production systems. The first scenario is a high input-high output system based on sustainable intensification, maximizing animal protein production efficiency on a limited land surface at the same time as minimizing environmental impacts. The second scenario is a reduced input-reduced output system based on selecting animals that are more robust to climate change and are better adapted to transform low quality feed (local feeds, feedstuff co-products, food waste) into meat. However, in contrast to the first scenario, the latter scenario results in reduced predicted yields, reduced production efficiency and possibly increased costs to the consumer. National evaluation of the availability of local feed and feedstuff co-product alternatives, determination of limits to feed sourced from international markets, available land for crop and livestock production, desired production levels, and a willingness to politically enforce policies through subsidies and/or penalties are some of the considerations to combine these two scenarios. Given future novel sustainable alternatives to livestock animal protein, it may become reasonable to move towards an added general premium price on 'protein from livestock animals' to the benefit of promoting higher incomes to farmers at the same time as covering the extra costs of, politically enforced, welfare of livestock animals in sustainable production systems. © 2020 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Investigation of muscle transcriptomes using gradient boosting machine learning identifies molecular predictors of feed efficiency in growing pigs.

BACKGROUND: Improving feed efficiency (FE) is a major challenge in pig production. This complex trait is characterized by a high variability. Therefore, the identification of predictors of FE may be a relevant strategy to reduce phenotyping efforts in breeding and selection programs. The aim of this study was to investigate the suitability of expressed muscle genes in prediction of FE traits in growing pigs. The approach considered different transcriptomics experiments to cover a large range of FE values and identify reliable predictors. RESULTS: Microarrays data were obtained from longissimus muscles of two lines divergently selected for residual feed intake (RFI). Pigs (n = 71) from three experiments belonged to generations 6 to 8 of selection, were fed either a diet with a standard composition or a diet rich in fiber and lipids, received feed ad libitum or at restricted level, and weighed between 80 and 115 kg at slaughter. For each pig, breeding value for RFI was estimated (RFI-BV), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) and energy-based feed conversion ratio (FCRe) were calculated during the test periods. Gradient boosting algorithms were used on the merged muscle transcriptomes to identify very important predictors of FE traits. About 20,405 annotated molecular probes were commonly expressed in longissimus muscle across experiments. Six to 267 expressed muscle genes covering a variety of biological processes were found as important predictors for RFI-BV (R2 = 0.63-0.65), FCR (R2 = 0.61-0.70) and FCRe (R2 = 0.49-0.52). The error of prediction was less than 8% for FCR. Altogether, 56 predictors were common to RFI-BV and FCR. Expression levels of 24 target genes were further measured by qPCR. Linear regression confirmed the good accuracy of combining mRNA levels of these genes to fit FE traits (RFI-BV: R2 = 0.73, FRC: R2 = 0.76; FCRe: R2 = 0.75). Stepwise regression procedure highlighted 10 genes (FKBP5, MUM1, AKAP12, FYN, TMED3, PHKB, TGF, SOCS6, ILR4, and FRAS1) in a linear combination predicting FCR and FCRe. In addition, FKBP5 and expression levels of five other genes (IGF2, SERINC3, CSRNP3, EZR and RPL16) significantly contributed to RFI-BV. CONCLUSION: It was possible to identify few genes expressed in muscle that might be reliable predictors of feed efficiency.

Effect of surgical or immune castration on postprandial nutrient profiles in male pigs.

To avoid boar taint before slaughtering, late castration by immunisation against gonadotrophin releasing hormone or immunocastration has been developed. The current study aimed at determining whether differences in feed efficiency between castrated male (CM), immune castrated (IM) and entire male pigs (EM) can be explained by differences in nutrient plasma profiles after a meal. In this study, 24 male pigs (n = 8/type) were enrolled between 14 to 19 weeks of age. Entire and IM pigs ate less and were more feed efficient than CM pigs (p < 0.05). The postprandial plasma profiles of glucose, insulin, urea and amino acids (AA) were determined before (d -6), just after (d 8) and well after (d 16) the decrease in testicular hormones in IM pigs. For each test day, pigs were fasted overnight and subsequently fed a small meal (400 g). On d -6, postprandial profiles of plasma glucose of IM pigs did not differ from the two other types of pigs. On d 8, EM pigs had a greater average plasma glucose concentration than IM and CM pigs (p < 0.05) but the profiles did not differ. On d 16, the differences between profiles of glucose suggest a lower clearance of glucose in EM compared with IM and CM pigs. Plasma insulin did not significantly differ between the three types. Plasma urea profiles did not differ between CM, EM and IC pigs on d -6 whereas CM pigs showed higher plasma urea concentrations than EM and IM thereafter (p < 0.01). Among AA, Lys plasma concentrations were greater in CM than in EM and IM pigs on d -6, d 8 and d 16 (p < 0.05), whereas on d 16 plasma Hypro concentrations were lower in CM than in EM and IM pigs (p < 0.05). The finding that plasma glucose profiles were modified by immunocastration much faster and earlier than urea and AA profiles, suggest that the decrease in testicular hormones impacted energy metabolism more rapidly than protein metabolism.

A transcriptome multi-tissue analysis identifies biological pathways and genes associated with variations in feed efficiency of growing pigs.

BACKGROUND: Animal's efficiency in converting feed into lean gain is a critical issue for the profitability of meat industries. This study aimed to describe shared and specific molecular responses in different tissues of pigs divergently selected over eight generations for residual feed intake (RFI). RESULTS: Pigs from the low RFI line had an improved gain-to-feed ratio during the test period and displayed higher leanness but similar adiposity when compared with pigs from the high RFI line at 132 days of age. Transcriptomics data were generated from longissimus muscle, liver and two adipose tissues using a porcine microarray and analyzed for the line effect (n = 24 pigs per line). The most apparent effect of the line was seen in muscle, whereas subcutaneous adipose tissue was the less affected tissue. Molecular data were analyzed by bioinformatics and subjected to multidimensional statistics to identify common biological processes across tissues and key genes participating to differences in the genetics of feed efficiency. Immune response, response to oxidative stress and protein metabolism were the main biological pathways shared by the four tissues that distinguished pigs from the low or high RFI lines. Many immune genes were under-expressed in the four tissues of the most efficient pigs. The main genes contributing to difference between pigs from the low vs high RFI lines were CD40, CTSC and NTN1. Different genes associated with energy use were modulated in a tissue-specific manner between the two lines. The gene expression program related to glycogen utilization was specifically up-regulated in muscle of pigs from the low RFI line (more efficient). Genes involved in fatty acid oxidation were down-regulated in muscle but were promoted in adipose tissues of the same pigs when compared with pigs from the high RFI line (less efficient). This underlined opposite line-associated strategies for energy use in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Genes related to cholesterol synthesis and efflux in liver and perirenal fat were also differentially regulated in pigs from the low vs high RFI lines. CONCLUSIONS: Non-productive functions such as immunity, defense against pathogens and oxidative stress contribute likely to inter-individual variations in feed efficiency.

Molecular alterations induced by a high-fat high-fiber diet in porcine adipose tissues: variations according to the anatomical fat location.

BACKGROUND: Changing the energy and nutrient source for growing animals may be an effective way of limiting adipose tissue expansion, a response which may depend on the genetic background of the animals. This study aims to describe the transcriptional modulations present in the adipose tissues of two pig lines divergently selected for residual feed intake which were either fed a high-fat high-fiber (HF) diet or an isocaloric low-fat high-starch diet (LF). RESULTS: Transcriptomic analysis using a porcine microarray was performed on 48 pigs (n = 12 per diet and per line) in both perirenal (PRAT) and subcutaneous (SCAT) adipose tissues. There was no interaction between diet and line on either adiposity or transcriptional profiles, so that the diet effect was inferred independently of the line. Irrespective of line, the relative weights of the two fat depots were lower in HF pigs than in LF pigs after 58 days on dietary treatment. In the two adipose tissues, the most apparent effect of the HF diet was the down-regulation of several genes associated with the ubiquitin-proteasome system, which therefore may be associated with dietary-induced modulations in genes acting in apoptotic and cell cycle regulatory pathways. Genes involved in glucose metabolic processes were also down-regulated by the HF diet, with no significant variation or decreased expression of important lipid-related genes such as the low-density lipoprotein receptor and leptin in the two fat pads. The master regulators of glucose and fatty acid homeostasis SREBF1 and MLXIPL, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)δ and its heterodimeric partner RXRA were down-regulated by the HF diet. PPARγ which has pleiotropic functions including lipid metabolism and adipocyte differentiation, was however up-regulated by this diet in PRAT and SCAT. Dietary-related modulations in the expression of genes associated with immunity and inflammation were mainly revealed in PRAT. CONCLUSION: A high-fat high-fiber diet depressed glucose and lipid anabolic molecular pathways, thus counteracting adipose tissue expansion. Interaction effects between dietary intake of fiber and lipids on gene expression may modulate innate immunity and inflammation, a response which is of interest with regard to chronic inflammation and its adverse effects on health and performance.

NMR-based metabolomics highlights differences in plasma metabolites in pigs exhibiting diet-induced differences in adiposity.

PURPOSE: A better understanding of the control of body fat mass and distribution is required for both human health and animal production. The current study investigates plasma parameters in response to changes in body fat mass. METHODS: Pigs from two lines divergently selected for residual feed intake were fed diets contrasted in energy sources and nutrients. Between 74 and 132 days of age, pigs (n = 12 by diet and by line) received isoproteic and isoenergetic diets, either rich in starch (LF) or in lipids and fibres (HF). At the end of the feeding trial, plasma samples were analysed by (1)H NMR spectroscopy and standard hormonal and biochemical assays. RESULTS: Pigs fed the HF diet had lower (P < 0.01) perirenal and subcutaneous adipose tissue relative masses than pigs fed the LF diet. Metabolomic approach showed a clear discrimination between diets, with lower (P < 0.05) plasma levels of creatinine-lysine, creatine, tyrosine, proline, histidine, lysine, phenylalanine and formate but higher (P < 0.001) plasma VLDL-LDL levels in HF pigs than in LF pigs. Plasma concentrations of triglycerides were higher (P < 0.001), while plasma concentrations of ß-hydroxybutyrate, leptin, glucose, insulin and urea were lower (P ≤ 0.05) in HF pigs than in LF pigs. Plasma levels of leptin, creatine and urea were positively correlated (r = 0.3, P < 0.05) with relative adipose tissue masses. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that metabolites associated with energy and protein metabolism were involved in the response to a high-fat, high-fibre diet. Relevant plasma indicators of metabolic flexibility related to changes in body adiposity were then proposed.

How Muscle Structure and Composition Influence Meat and Flesh Quality.

Skeletal muscle consists of several tissues, such as muscle fibers and connective and adipose tissues. This review aims to describe the features of these various muscle components and their relationships with the technological, nutritional, and sensory properties of meat/flesh from different livestock and fish species. Thus, the contractile and metabolic types, size and number of muscle fibers, the content, composition and distribution of the connective tissue, and the content and lipid composition of intramuscular fat play a role in the determination of meat/flesh appearance, color, tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and technological value. Interestingly, the biochemical and structural characteristics of muscle fibers, intramuscular connective tissue, and intramuscular fat appear to play independent role, which suggests that the properties of these various muscle components can be independently modulated by genetics or environmental factors to achieve production efficiency and improve meat/flesh quality.

Age-related changes in the features of porcine adult stem cells isolated from adipose tissue and skeletal muscle.

A better understanding of the control of body fat distribution and muscle development is of the upmost importance for both human and animal physiology. This requires a better knowledge of the features and physiology of adult stem cells in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Thus the objective of the current study was to determine the type and proportion of these cells in growing and adult pigs. The different cell subsets of stromal vascular cells isolated from these tissues were characterized by flow cytometry using cell surface markers (CD11b, CD14, CD31, CD34, CD45, CD56, and CD90). Adipose and muscle cells were predominantly positive for the CD34, CD56, and CD90 markers. The proportion of positive cells changed with age especially in intermuscular adipose tissue and skeletal muscle where the percentage of CD90(+) cells markedly increased in adult animals. Further analysis using coimmunostaining indicates that eight populations with proportions ranging from 12 to 30% were identified in at least one tissue at 7 days of age, i.e., CD90(+)/CD34(+), CD90(+)/CD34(-), CD90(+)/CD56(+), CD90(+)/CD56(-), CD90(-)/CD56(+), CD56(+)/CD34(+), CD56(+)/CD34(-), and CD56(-)/CD34(+). Adipose tissues appeared to be a less heterogeneous tissue than skeletal muscle with two main populations (CD90(+)/CD34(-) and CD90(+)/CD56(-)) compared with five or more in muscle during the studied period. In culture, cells from adipose tissue and muscle differentiated into mature adipocytes in adipogenic medium. In myogenic conditions, only cells from muscle could form mature myofibers. Further studies are now needed to better understand the plasticity of those cell populations throughout life.

Spontaneous intra-uterine growth restriction modulates the endocrine status and the developmental expression of genes in porcine fetal and neonatal adipose tissue.

Low birth weight is correlated with low adiposity at birth, a phenotype that influences neonatal survival and later adiposity. A better understanding of events affecting the fetal adipose tissue development and its functionality around birth is thus needed. This study was undertaken to examine the impact of spontaneous intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) on circulating concentrations of hormones and nutrients together with the developmental expression patterns of various genes in subcutaneous adipose tissue of pig fetus during the last third of pregnancy and just after birth. At 71 and 112 days post-conception and 2 days postnatal, pairs of same-sex piglets were chosen within litters to have either a medium (MBW) or a low (LBW) weight (n=6 pairs at each stage). The results indicate that IUGR counteracts the temporal fall of DLK1 gene expression in developing adipose tissue across gestation. It also attenuates the time-dependent increase in expression levels of many genes promoting adipocyte differentiation (PPARG, CEBPA) and lipogenesis (LPL, SREBF1, FASN, FABP4). Opposite responses to IUGR were observed for the IGF system, so that IGF1 mRNA levels were lower (P<0.001) but IGF2 mRNA levels were greater in adipose tissue of LBW piglets compared with MBW piglets. The plasma insulin concentration and the mRNA levels of insulin receptor (INSR) and insulin-responsive glucose transporter (GLUT4) in adipose tissue were also greater in LBW piglets at day 2 postnatal. The data indicate that IUGR delays the normal ontogeny of adipose tissue across gestation and affects the insulin and IGF axes around birth.

Combining pig genetic and feeding strategies improves the sensory, nutritional and technological quality of pork in the context of relocation of feed resources.

Genetic and feeding factors were combined to improve various quality attributes of pork. Thirty Duroc (D) and thirty Pietrain NN (P) female crossbreeds received a control (C) or an R diet including extruded faba bean and linseed, from 30 to 115 kg. Growth, feed efficiency and slaughter weight were higher for P vs. D pigs and for R vs. C pigs. D pigs had fatter carcasses than P, whereas feeding did not affect carcass fatness. Compared with P, loin meat from D pigs had lower drip, higher ultimate pH and lipid content, and higher marbling, tenderness and juiciness scores (P < 0.05). R feeding did not modify sensory traits but improved pork nutritional value by markedly reducing n-6:n-3 and saturated:n-3 fatty acid ratios (P < 0.001). Combining D genotype and R diet is a favorable strategy for sensory, nutritional, technological properties and societal image of pork through relocation of feed resources, but requires a better market valorization to be implemented.

Mitochondrial function, fatty acid metabolism, and immune system are relevant features of pig adipose tissue development.

The molecular mechanisms underlying the genetic control of fat development in humans and livestock species still require characterization. To gain insights on gene expression patterns associated with genetic propensity for adiposity, we compared subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT) transcriptomics profiles from two contrasted pig breeds for body fatness. Samples were obtained from Large White (LW; lean phenotype) and Basque pigs (B; low growth and high fat content) at 35 kg (n = 5 per breed) or 145 kg body weight (n = 10 per breed). Using a custom adipose tissue microarray, we found 271 genes to be differentially expressed between the two breeds at both stages, out of which 123 were highly expressed in LW pigs and 148 genes were highly expressed in B pigs. Functional enrichment analysis based on gene ontology (GO) terms highlighted gene groups corresponding to the mitochondrial energy metabolism in LW pigs, whereas immune response was found significantly enriched in B pigs. Genes associated with lipid metabolism, such as ELOVL6, a gene involved in fatty acid elongation, had a lower expression in B compared with LW pigs. Furthermore, despite enlarged adipocyte diameters and higher plasma leptin concentration, B pigs displayed reduced lipogenic enzyme activities compared with LW pigs at 145 kg. Altogether, our results suggest that the development of adiposity was associated with a progressive worsening of the metabolic status, leading to a low-grade inflammatory state, and may thus be of significant interest for both livestock production and human health.

Air-displacement plethysmography for determining body composition in neonates: validation using live piglets.

INTRODUCTION: Air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) was developed as a noninvasive tool to assess body composition, i.e., the proportion of fat mass (%FM) and lean body mass. The results of previous studies comparing ADP with labeled water dilution in infants and with chemical analysis in phantoms have validated the ADP approach indirectly. We assessed the precision and accuracy of measurements of % FM proportions in live animals, using ADP in comparison with biochemical analyses. METHODS: Three groups of 12 piglets each underwent four consecutive body composition assessments at 2, 7, and 21 d and were euthanized to determine whole-body lipid content by direct chemical analysis. RESULTS: The average body weights were 1,490, 2,210, and 5,610 g at d2, d7, and d21, respectively. The mean %FM values determined by biochemical analysis and ADP were 8.63 ± 4.08% and 8.01 ± 4.03%, respectively. Linear regression and Bland-Altman analyses indicated good agreement for %FM. The root mean square coefficient of variation (RMS-CV) for ADP was 17.9%, with a better precision in the higher fat mass range. DISCUSSION: Despite its relatively poor precision in the low range of %FM, ADP measures fat mass with reasonable precision and accuracy in the range of body weight encountered in low-birth-weight infants.

The protein level of isoenergetic formulae does not modulate postprandial insulin secretion in piglets and has no consequences on later glucose tolerance.

Early postnatal nutrition is involved in metabolic programming, an excess of protein being suspected to enhance early growth and the propensity to later develop insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that excessive protein intake during the suckling period would overstimulate the endocrine pancreas in the short term and alter durably its maturation, contributing to the later disruption of glucose homeostasis. Normal-birth-weight and low-birth-weight piglets were fed isoenergetic formulae providing an adequate-protein (AP, equivalent to sow milk) or a high-protein (HP, +48 %) supply between 7 and 28 d of age and were fed a standard diet until 70 d of age. During the formula-feeding period, the HP formula did not modify postprandial insulin secretion but transiently increased fasting insulin and the homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR, P < 0·05). Fasting insulin and HOMA-IR were restored to AP piglets' values 1 month after weaning. The structure of the endocrine pancreas was not affected by the protein content of the formula. The weight at birth had no major effect on the studied parameters. We concluded that a high-protein supply during the suckling period does not interfere with insulin secretion and endocrine pancreas maturation in the short term. It has no consequences either on glucose tolerance 1 month after weaning. The present study demonstrated that up-regulation of postprandial insulin secretion is not involved in higher growth observed in piglets fed a HP formula.

Poor hygiene of housing conditions influences energy metabolism in a muscle type-dependent manner in growing pigs differing in feed efficiency.

The ability of pigs to cope with inflammatory challenges may by modified by selection for residual feed intake (RFI), a measure of feed efficiency. In the current study, we evaluated skeletal muscle metabolic responses to degraded hygiene conditions in pigs divergently selected for RFI. At 82 d of age, low RFI and high RFI pigs were housed in either poor or good hygiene conditions. After a 6-week challenge, the poor hygiene conditions induced a decrease in growth performance (P < 0.001) and in plasma IGF-I concentrations (P < 0.003) in both lines. In the slow-twitch oxidative semispinalis muscle, poor hygiene conditions induced a shift towards a more oxidative metabolism and an activation of the AMPK pathway in pigs of both RFI lines. In the fast-twitch glycolytic longississimus muscle, poor hygiene conditions were associated to a less glycolytic metabolism in the HRFI line only. Poor hygiene conditions also increased the protein level of lipidation of microtubule-associated protein 1 light-chain 3ß (LC3-II) in both RFI lines, suggesting an activation of the autophagy pathway. Altogether, the data revealed muscle-type specific metabolic adaptations to poor hygiene conditions, which may be related to different strategies to fuel the activated immune system.

Hygiene of housing conditions and proinflammatory signals alter gene expressions in porcine adipose tissues and blood cells.

Adipose tissue is an organ with metabolic, endocrine and immune functions. In this tissue, the expressions of genes associated with several metabolic pathways, including lipid metabolism, have been shown to be affected by genetic selection for feed efficiency, an important trait to consider in livestock. We hypothesized that the stimulation of immune system caused by poor hygiene conditions of housing impacts the molecular and cellular features of adipose tissue and that the impact may differ between pigs that diverge in feed efficiency. At the age of 12 weeks, Large White pigs from two genetic lines divergent for residual feed intake (RFI) were housed in two contrasting hygiene conditions (good vs poor). After six weeks of exposure, pigs were slaughtered (n = 36). Samples of blood, subcutaneous (SCAT) and perirenal (PRAT) adipose tissues were collected for cell response and gene expression investigations. The decrease in the relative weight of PRAT was associated with a decline in mRNA levels of FASN, ME, LCN2 and TLR4 (P < 0.05) in pigs housed in poor conditions compared with pigs housed in good conditions for both RFI lines. In SCAT, the expressions of only two key genes (PPARG and TLR4) were significantly affected by the hygiene of housing conditions. Besides, the mRNA levels of both LCN2 and GPX3 were influenced by the RFI line (P < 0.05). Because we suspected an effect of poor hygiene at the cellular levels, we investigated the differentiation of stromal vascular cells isolated from SCAT in vitro in the absence or presence of a pro-inflammatory cytokine, Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α). The ability of these cells to differentiate in the absence or presence of TNF-α did not differ among the four groups of animals (P > 0.05). We also investigated the expressions of genes involved in the immune response and lipid metabolism in whole blood cells cultured in the absence and presence of LPS. The hygiene conditions had no effect but, the relative expression of the GPX3 gene was higher (P < 0.001) in high RFI than in low RFI pigs while the expressions of IL-10 (P = 0.027), TGFß1 (P = 0.023) and ADIPOR2 (P = 0.05) genes were lower in high RFI than in low RFI pigs. Overall, the current study indicates that the hygiene of housing had similar effects on both RFI lines on the expression of genes in adipose tissues and on the features of SCAT adipose cells and whole blood cells in response to TNF-α and LPS. It further demonstrates that the number of genes with expression impacted by housing conditions was higher in PRAT than in SCAT. It suggests a depot-specific response of adipose tissue to the current challenge.

Improving maternal welfare during gestation has positive outcomes on neonatal survival and modulates offspring immune response in pigs.

Improving the housing of pregnant sows by giving them more space and access to deep straw had positive effects on their welfare, influenced their maternal behavior and improved the survival of their offspring. The present study aimed at determining whether these effects were actually due to environmental enrichment and whether the provision of straw pellets and wood can partly mimic the effects of straw bedding during gestation. Three graded levels of enrichment were used, that were, collective conventional pens on slatted floor (C, n = 26), the same pens with manipulable wood materials and distribution of straw pellets after the meals (CE, n = 30), and larger pens on deep straw litter (E, n = 27). Sows were then housed in identical farrowing crates from 105 days of gestation until weaning. Decreased stereotypies, blood neutrophils, and salivary cortisol, and increased behavioral investigation indicated that health and welfare of sows during gestation were improved in the E environment compared with the C environment. The CE sows responded as C or E sows depending on the trait. Piglet mortality rate in the first 12 h after birth was lower in E and CE litters than in C litters, but enrichment level during gestation had only small effects on lactating sow behavior and milk composition postpartum. On days 2 and 3 of lactation, E sows interrupted less often their nursing sequences than C and CE sows. On day 2, milk from both E and CE sows contained more minerals than that from C sows. In one-day-old piglets, the expression levels of genes encoding toll-like receptors (TLR2, TLR4) and cytokines (interleukin-1, -6 and -10) in whole blood after 20-h culture, were greater in E piglets than in CE or C piglets. In conclusion, housing sows in an enriched environment during gestation improved early neonatal survival, probably via moderate and cumulative positive effects on sow behavior, milk composition, and offspring innate immune response. The gradation in the effects observed in C, CE and E housing environment reinforced the hypothesis of a causal relationship between maternal environmental enrichment, sow welfare and postnatal piglet traits.

A high-protein neonatal formula induces a temporary reduction of adiposity and changes later adipocyte physiology.

The high-protein content of formula offered to low-birth weight babies is suspected to increase the risk of obesity later in life. This study assesses the immediate and subsequent effects of a protein intake in excess during suckling on hormonal and metabolic status and adipose tissue features in a porcine model of intrauterine growth restriction. Piglets were fed milk replacers formulated to provide an adequate (AP) or a high (HP) protein supply from day 2 to day 28. A subset of piglets was killed at day 28. After weaning, the remaining piglets had free access to the same solid high-fat diet until day 160. From day 2 to day 28, HP piglets had a greater daily weight gain (P < 0.05). Relative weight of perirenal adipose tissue (PAT), adipocyte mean diameters, activities of lipogenic enzymes in PAT and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT), and leptinemia were lower (P < 0.05) in HP piglets than in AP piglets. Genes related to glucose utilization and lipid anabolism in PAT and SCAT were (P < 0.05) or tended (P < 0.1) to be downregulated in HP piglets. At day 160, adipocytes were enlarged, whereas lipogenic rates in adipocytes were reduced (P < 0.05) in SCAT of HP compared with AP pigs. Percent body fat, mRNA levels of genes controlling lipid metabolism, and plasma concentrations of hormones and metabolites were similar in HP and AP pigs. In conclusion, a HP neonatal formula induced a temporary reduction of adiposity and changed adipocyte physiology at peripubertal age.

Growth, body composition and hormonal status of growing pigs exhibiting a normal or small weight at birth and exposed to a neonatal diet enriched in proteins.

Small birth weight and excess of early protein intake are suspected to enhance later obesity risk. The present study was undertaken to determine the impact of neonatal diets differing in protein content on growth, body composition and hormonal status of 70-d-old pigs born with normal weight (NW) or small weight (SW). At 7 d of age, male and female suckled piglets were assigned to the NW (approximately 1·4 kg at birth) or SW (approximately 0·99 kg at birth) groups. They were fed milk replacers formulated to provide an adequate protein (AP) or a high protein (HP) supply for 3 weeks. From weaning to 70 d of age, all animals received ad libitum the same standard diet. Growth rates were higher (P < 0·05) in HP piglets than in AP piglets during formula feeding and remained higher (P < 0·05) only in HP male pigs thereafter. No difference in feed consumption was detected between groups during the periods examined. Carcass lipid content and the relative weight of perirenal adipose tissue did not differ between the AP and HP pigs. Whereas plasma leptin concentration was higher (P < 0·05) in HP pigs than in AP pigs with a marked difference in SW pigs, plasma insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I concentration and expression of IGF system genes were not affected by the diets. In summary, a HP intake during the suckling period induced an increase in growth rate that persisted only in male pigs during the post-weaning period. This response was not associated with any difference in adiposity parameters in this period.