Metabolic engineering of plants for osmotic stress resistance.

Genes encoding critical steps in the synthesis of osmoprotectant compounds are now being expressed in transgenic plants. These plants generally accumulate low levels of osmoprotectants and have increased stress tolerance. The next priority is therefore to engineer greater osmoprotectant synthesis without detriment to the rest of metabolism. This will require manipulation of multiple genes, guided by thorough analysis of metabolite fluxes and pool sizes.

ATS1 and ATS3: two novel embryo-specific genes in Arabidopsis thaliana.

A modified protocol for differential display of mRNA was used to identify and clone genes expressed in developing Arabidopsis thaliana seeds. Two novel embryo-specific genes designated ATS1 and ATS3 (Arabidopsis thaliana seed gene) were identified. In situ hybridization showed that, spatially, ATS1 is expressed in a pattern similar to the Arabidopsis GEA1 gene and that ATS3 is expressed in a pattern similar to the Arabidopsis seed storage protein genes. Southern analysis of Arabidopsis genomic DNA indicated that ATS1 is a member of a small gene family and that ATS3 is present as a single copy in the diploid genome. Sequence analysis of both genes showed that ATS1 is similar to the rice EFA27 gene and that ATS3 is unique. Western analysis and light level immunocytochemistry using antisera raised against the putative ATS1 and ATS3 translation products verified that ATS1 and ATS3 proteins are seed-specific and accumulate in a spatial pattern similar to their respective transcripts. Taken together, these data show that ATS1 and ATS3 are novel embryo-specific genes in Arabidopsis.

Molecular approaches to identify novel genes expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Our laboratory is engaged in an effort to identify genes expressed primarily during plant embryogenesis. Genes which exhibit unique expression profiles in the plant are also being sought. To this end, several methods to identify and clone novel genes based on specific expression patterns have been developed. These methods include virtual subtraction, differential display and other PCR based technologies. In addition to this, a yeast one-hybrid approach has been established to identify transcription factors which regulate these genes. To date, this work has identified several novel genes.

Radiotracer and computer modeling evidence that phospho-base methylation is the main route of choline synthesis in tobacco.

Among flowering plants, the synthesis of choline (Cho) from ethanolamine (EA) can potentially occur via three parallel, interconnected pathways involving methylation of free bases, phospho-bases, or phosphatidyl-bases. We investigated which pathways operate in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) because previous work has shown that the endogenous Cho supply limits accumulation of glycine betaine in transgenic tobacco plants engineered to convert Cho to glycine betaine. The kinetics of metabolite labeling were monitored in leaf discs supplied with [(33)P]phospho-EA, [(33)P]phospho-monomethylethanolamine, or [(14)C]formate, and the data were subjected to computer modeling. Because partial hydrolysis of phospho-bases occurred in the apoplast, modeling of phospho-base metabolism required consideration of the re-entry of [(33)P]phosphate into the network. Modeling of [(14)C]formate metabolism required consideration of the labeling of the EA and methyl moieties of Cho. Results supported the following conclusions: (a) The first methylation step occurs solely at the phospho-base level; (b) the second and third methylations occur mainly (83%-92% and 65%-85%, respectively) at the phospho-base level, with the remainder occurring at the phosphatidyl-base level; and (c) free Cho originates predominantly from phosphatidylcholine rather than from phospho-Cho. This study illustrates how computer modeling of radiotracer data, in conjunction with information on chemical pool sizes, can provide a coherent, quantitative picture of fluxes within a complex metabolic network.

Isolation of a delta 6-desaturase gene from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 by gain-of-function expression in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120.

The enzyme delta 6-desaturase is responsible for the conversion of linoleic acid (18:2) to gamma-linolenic acid (18:3 gamma). A cyanobacterial gene encoding delta 6-desaturase was cloned by expression of a Synechocystis genomic cosmid library in Anabaena, a cyanobacterium lacking delta 6-desaturase. Expression of the Synechocystis delta 6-desaturase gene in Anabaena resulted in the accumulation of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and octadecatetraenoic acid (18:4). The predicted 359 amino acid sequence of the Synechocystis delta 6-desaturase shares limited, but significant, sequence similarity with two other reported desaturases. Analysis of three overlapping cosmids revealed a delta 12-desaturase gene linked to the delta 6-desaturase gene. Expression of Synechocystis delta 6- and delta 12-desaturases in Synechococcus, a cyanobacterium deficient in both desaturases, resulted in the production of linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid.

Identification of novel mRNAs in immature seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana.

Although most of the major discernible morphogenetic events in plants occur after germination, the overall architectural pattern of the mature plant is established during early events of embryogenesis. So far, few genes that are expressed specifically during embryogenesis have been identified. This is due primarily to technical difficulties associated with the mass ratios of the embryo and the surrounding maternal tissue and to the lack of molecular and cellular markers to direct screening efforts. We have developed a series of molecular approaches to study the early events of embryogenesis. These include 'virtual subtraction' of a cDNA library with high specific-activity cDNA probes generated from both seed and non-seed tissue, PCR amplification of gene family members from an immature seed cDNA library using primers specific to conserved domains, differential display analysis of mRNA populations and high throughput expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis. These techniques have led to the identification and isolation of several novel seed-specific cDNAs.

Enhanced synthesis of choline and glycine betaine in transgenic tobacco plants that overexpress phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase.

Choline (Cho) is the precursor of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine and is itself an essential nutrient for humans. Metabolic engineering of Cho biosynthesis in plants could therefore enhance both their resistance to osmotic stresses (drought and salinity) and their nutritional value. The key enzyme of the plant Cho-synthesis pathway is phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase, which catalyzes all three of the methylations required to convert phosphoethanolamine to phosphocholine. We show here that overexpressing this enzyme in transgenic tobacco increased the levels of phosphocholine by 5-fold and free Cho by 50-fold without affecting phosphatidylcholine content or growth. Moreover, the expanded Cho pool led to a 30-fold increase in synthesis of glycine betaine via an engineered glycine betaine pathway. Supplying the transgenics with the Cho precursor ethanolamine (EA) further enhanced Cho levels even though the supplied EA was extensively catabolized. These latter results establish that there is further scope for improving Cho synthesis by engineering an increased endogenous supply of EA and suggest that this could be achieved by enhancing EA synthesis and/or by suppressing its degradation.

Metabolic modeling identifies key constraints on an engineered glycine betaine synthesis pathway in tobacco.

Previous work has shown that tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants engineered to express spinach choline monooxygenase in the chloroplast accumulate very little glycine betaine (GlyBet) unless supplied with choline (Cho). We therefore used metabolic modeling in conjunction with [(14)C]Cho labeling experiments and in vivo (31)P NMR analyses to define the constraints on GlyBet synthesis, and hence the processes likely to require further engineering. The [(14)C]Cho doses used were large enough to markedly perturb Cho and phosphocholine pool sizes, which enabled development and testing of models with rates dynamically responsive to pool sizes, permitting estimation of the kinetic properties of Cho metabolism enzymes and transport systems in vivo. This revealed that import of Cho into the chloroplast is a major constraint on GlyBet synthesis, the import rate being approximately 100-fold lower than the rates of Cho phosphorylation and transport into the vacuole, with which import competes. Simulation studies suggested that, were the chloroplast transport limitation corrected, additional engineering interventions would still be needed to achieve levels of GlyBet as high as those in plants that accumulate GlyBet naturally. This study reveals the rigidity of the Cho metabolism network and illustrates how computer modeling can help guide rational metabolic engineering design.

Choline import into chloroplasts limits glycine betaine synthesis in tobacco: analysis of plants engineered with a chloroplastic or a cytosolic pathway.

The biosynthesis of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine (GlyBet) is a target for metabolic engineering to enhance stress resistance in crops. Certain plants synthesize GlyBet in chloroplasts via a two-step oxidation of choline (Cho). In previous work, a chloroplastic GlyBet synthesis pathway was inserted into tobacco (which lacks GlyBet) by expressing spinach choline monooxygenase (CMO). The transformants had low CMO enzyme activity, and produced little GlyBet (less than or = 70 nmol g(-1) fresh wt). In this study, transformants with up to 100-fold higher CMO activity showed no further increase in GlyBet. In contrast, tobacco expressing a cytosolic GlyBet synthesis pathway accumulated significantly more GlyBet (430 nmol g(-1) fresh wt), suggesting that subcellular localization influences pathway flux. Modeling of the labeling kinetics of Cho metabolites observed when [14C]Cho was supplied to engineered plants demonstrated that Cho import into chloroplasts indeed limits the flux to GlyBet in the chloroplastic pathway. A high-activity Cho transporter in the chloroplast envelope may therefore be an integral part of the GlyBet synthesis pathway in species that accumulate GlyBet naturally, and hence a target for future engineering.

The endogenous choline supply limits glycine betaine synthesis in transgenic tobacco expressing choline monooxygenase.

Certain plants produce glycine betaine (GlyBet) in the chloroplast by a two-step oxidation of choline. Introducing GlyBet accumulation into plants that lack it is a well-established target for metabolic engineering because GlyBet can lessen damage from osmotic stress. The first step in GlyBet synthesis is catalyzed by choline mono-oxygenase (CMO), a stromal enzyme with a Rieske-type [2Fe-2S] center. The absence of CMO is the primary constraint on GlyBet production in GlyBet-deficient plants such as tobacco, but the endogenous choline supply is also potentially problematic. To investigate this, we constructed transgenic tobacco plants that constitutively express a spinach CMO cDNA. The CMO protein was correctly compartmented in chloroplasts and was enzymatically active, showing that its [2Fe-2S] cluster had been inserted. Salinization increased CMO protein levels, apparently via a post-transcriptional mechanism, to as high as 10% of that in salinized spinach. However, the GlyBet contents of CMO+ plants were very low (0.02-0.05 mumol g-1 fresh weight) in both unstressed and salinized conditions. Experiments with [14C]GlyBet demonstrated that this was not due to GlyBet catabolism. When CMO+ plants were supplied in culture with 5 mM choline or phosphocholine, their choline and GlyBet levels increased by at least 30-fold. The choline precursors mono- and dimethylethanolamine also enhanced choline and GlyBet levels but ethanolamine did not, pointing to a major constraint on flux to choline at the first methylation step in its synthesis. The extractable activity of the enzyme mediating this step in tobacco was only 3% that of spinach. We conclude that in GlyBet-deficient plants engineered with choline-oxidizing genes, the size of the free choline pool and the metabolic flux to choline need to be increased to attain GlyBet levels as high as those in natural accumulators.

cDNA cloning of phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase from spinach by complementation in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and characterization of the recombinant enzyme.

The N-methylation of phosphoethanolamine is the committing step in choline biogenesis in plants and is catalyzed by S-adenosyl-L-methionine:phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEAMT, EC ). A spinach PEAMT cDNA was isolated by functional complementation of a Schizosaccharomyces pombe cho2(-) mutant and was shown to encode a protein with PEAMT activity and without ethanolamine- or phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase activity. The PEAMT cDNA specifies a 494-residue polypeptide comprising two similar, tandem methyltransferase domains, implying that PEAMT arose by gene duplication and fusion. Data base searches suggested that PEAMTs with the same tandem structure are widespread among flowering plants. Size exclusion chromatography of the recombinant enzyme indicates that it exists as a monomer. PEAMT catalyzes not only the first N-methylation of phosphoethanolamine but also the two subsequent N-methylations, yielding phosphocholine. Monomethyl- and dimethylphosphoethanolamine are detected as reaction intermediates. A truncated PEAMT lacking the C-terminal methyltransferase domain catalyzes only the first methylation. Phosphocholine inhibits both the wild type and the truncated enzyme, although the latter is less sensitive. Salinization of spinach plants increases PEAMT mRNA abundance and enzyme activity in leaves by about 10-fold, consistent with the high demand in stressed plants for choline to support glycine betaine synthesis.

Developmentally regulated expression of a sunflower 11S seed protein gene in transgenic tobacco.

Helianthinin is the major 11S seed storage protein of sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Like most seed proteins, helianthinin is encoded by a small gene family; two members of this gene family, HaG3-A and HaG3-D, have been isolated and characterized. Tobacco was transformed with a 6 kb fragment of HaG3-A containing the helianthinin coding region flanked by 3.8 kb upstream and 0.4 kb downstream sequence. Expression of helianthinin was developmentally regulated in seeds of transgenic tobacco plants; furthermore, helianthinin polypeptides were proteolytically processed and targeted to the protein bodies of transgenic tobacco. A fragment of HaG3-A from -2376 to +24 was fused to the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene and transferred to tobacco. GUS expression driven by this helianthinin upstream region was developmentally regulated in seeds. Germinating seedlings of the same transformant exhibited a time-dependent decrease in GUS activity with none detected by 6 days post imbibition (DPI). Histochemical analysis of GUS activity in embryos and 2 to 5 DPI seedlings showed expression restricted to the cotyledons and upper embryonic axis with none detected at the radicle end. No GUS activity was found in cotyledons, hypocotyls, leaves, and roots of 18 day seedlings or in leaves of an 8 week F1 plant. These results indicate that the cis-regulatory elements required for developmental control of the HaG3-A helianthinin gene are located in a 2.4 kb upstream region of this gene. This region was sequenced together with the upstream region of the HaG3-D helianthinin gene.

Comparative gene expression in sexual and apomictic ovaries of Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link.

Limited emphasis has been given to the molecular study of apomixis, an asexual method of reproduction where seeds are produced without fertilization. Most buffelgrass (Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link syn = Cenchrus ciliaris L.) genotypes reproduce by obligate apomixis (apospory); however, rare sexual plants have been recovered. A modified differential display procedure was used to compare gene expression in unpollinated ovaries containing ovules with either sexual or apomictic female gametophytes. The modification incorporated end-labeled poly(A)+ anchored primers as the only isotopic source, and was a reliable and consistent approach for detecting differentially displayed transcripts. Using 20 different decamers and two anchor primers, 2268 cDNA fragments between 200 and 600 bp were displayed. From these, eight reproducible differentially displayed cDNAs were identified and cloned. Based on northern analysis, one cDNA was detected in only the sexual ovaries, two cDNAs in only apomictic ovaries and one cDNA was present in both types of ovaries. Three fragments could not be detected and one fragment was detected in ovaries, stems, and leaves. Comparison of gene expression during sexual and apomictic development in buffelgrass represents a new model system and a strategy for investigating female reproductive development in the angiosperms.

Catalase is encoded by a multigene family in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh.

The catalase multigene family in Arabidopsis includes three genes encoding individual subunits that associate to form at least six isozymes that are readily resolved by nondenaturing gel electrophoresis. CAT1 and CAT3 map to chromosome 1, and CAT2 maps to chromosome 4. The nucleotide sequences of the three coding regions are 70 to 72% identical. The amino acid sequences of the three catalase subunits are 75 to 84% identical and 87 to 94% similar, considering conservative substitutions. Both the individual isozymes and the individual subunit mRNAs show distinct patterns of spatial (organ-specific) expression. Six isozymes are detected in flowers and leaves and two are seen in roots. Similarly, mRNA abundance of the three genes varies among organs. All three mRNAs are highly expressed in bolts, and CAT2 and CAT3 are highly expressed in leaves.

S-methylmethionine plays a major role in phloem sulfur transport and is synthesized by a novel type of methyltransferase.

All flowering plants produce S-methylmethionine (SMM) from Met and have a separate mechanism to convert SMM back to Met. The functions of SMM and the reasons for its interconversion with Met are not known. In this study, by using the aphid stylet collection method together with mass spectral and radiolabeling analyses, we established that l-SMM is a major constituent of the phloem sap moving to wheat ears. The SMM level in the phloem ( approximately 2% of free amino acids) was 1.5-fold that of glutathione, indicating that SMM could contribute approximately half the sulfur needed for grain protein synthesis. Similarly, l-SMM was a prominently labeled product in phloem exudates obtained by EDTA treatment of detached leaves from plants of the Poaceae, Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae that were given l-(35)S-Met. cDNA clones for the enzyme that catalyzes SMM synthesis (S-adenosylMet:Met S-methyltransferase; EC 2.1.1.12) were isolated from Wollastonia biflora, maize, and Arabidopsis. The deduced amino acid sequences revealed the expected methyltransferase domain ( approximately 300 residues at the N terminus), plus an 800-residue C-terminal region sharing significant similarity with aminotransferases and other pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzymes. These results indicate that SMM has a previously unrecognized but often major role in sulfur transport in flowering plants and that evolution of SMM synthesis in this group involved a gene fusion event. The resulting bipartite enzyme is unlike any other known methyltransferase.