Postpartum uptake of diabetes screening tests in women with gestational diabetes: The PANDORA study.

AIMS: To determine rates and predictors of postpartum diabetes screening among Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). METHODS: PANDORA is a prospective longitudinal cohort of women recruited in pregnancy. Postpartum diabetes screening rates at 12 weeks (75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)) and 6, 12 and 18 months (OGTT, glycated haemoglobin [HbA1C ] or fasting plasma glucose) were assessed for women with GDM (n = 712). Associations between antenatal factors and screening with any test (OGTT, HbA1C , fasting plasma glucose) by 6 months postpartum were examined using Cox proportional hazards regression. RESULTS: Postpartum screening rates with an OGTT by 12 weeks and 6 months postpartum were lower among Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander women than non-Indigenous women (18% vs. 30% at 12 weeks, and 23% vs. 37% at 6 months, p < 0.001). Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander women were more likely to have completed a 6-month HbA1C compared to non-Indigenous women (16% vs. 2%, p < 0.001). Screening by 6 months postpartum with any test was 41% for Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander women and 45% for non-Indigenous women (p = 0.304). Characteristics associated with higher screening rates with any test by 6 months postpartum included, insulin use in pregnancy, first pregnancy, not smoking and lower BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Given very high rates of type 2 diabetes among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, early postpartum screening with the most feasible test should be prioritised to detect prediabetes and diabetes for intervention.

Obstetric and perinatal outcomes for women with pre-existing diabetes in rural compared to metropolitan settings in Victoria, Australia.

BACKGROUND: Pre-existing diabetes in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of complications. Likewise, living in rural, regional and remote Victoria, Australia, is also associated with poorer health outcomes. There is a gap in the literature with regard to whether Victorian women with pre-existing diabetes experience a greater risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes compared to their metropolitan counterparts. AIM: Our objective is to compare obstetric and perinatal outcomes for women with pre-existing diabetes delivering in rural vs metropolitan hospitals in Victoria, Australia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective population-based study using routinely collected state-based data of singleton births to women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes who delivered in metropolitan (n = 3233) and rural hospitals (n = 693) in Victoria, Australia, between 2006-2015. Pearson's χ2 test, Fisher's exact test and MannWhitney U-test were used to compare obstetric and perinatal outcomes between metropolitan and rural locations. RESULTS: Delivery in a rural hospital was associated with higher rates of stillbirth (2.3% vs 1.1%, P = 0.027), macrosomia (25.9% vs 16.9%, P < 0.001), shoulder dystocia (8.4% vs 3.5%, P < 0.001) and admission to the neonatal intensive care unit/special care nursery (73.2% vs 59.3%, P < 0.001). Smoking (18.0% vs 8.9%, P < 0.001), overweight/obesity (P = 0.047) and socioeconomic disadvantage (P < 0.001) were more common in rural women. CONCLUSIONS: Women with pre-existing diabetes who deliver in rural hospitals experience a greater risk of adverse perinatal outcomes and present with increased maternal risk factors. These results suggest a need to improve care for women with pre-existing diabetes in rural Victoria.

Seasonality, temperature and pregnancy oral glucose tolerance test results in Australia.

BACKGROUND: The oral glucose-tolerance test (OGTT) is currently the standard method for diagnosis of gestational diabetes (GDM). We conducted a post hoc analysis using the Australian Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) data to determine seasonal variations in OGTT results, the consequent prevalence of GDM, and association with select perinatal parameters. METHOD: Women enrolled in the Australian HAPO study sites (Brisbane and Newcastle) from 2001 to 2006 were included if OGTT results between 24 to 32 weeks gestation were available (n = 2120). Fasting plasma glucose, 1-h plasma glucose, 2-h plasma glucose, HbA1c, HOMA-IR, and umbilical cord C-peptide and glucose values were categorized by season and correlated to monthly temperature records from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology for Brisbane and Newcastle. GDM was defined post hoc using the IADPSG/WHO criteria. RESULTS: Small but significant (p <  0.01 on ANOVA) elevations in fasting glucose (+ 0.12 mM), HbA1c (+ 0.09%), and HOMA-IR (+ 0.88 units) were observed during the winter months. Conversely, higher 1-h (+ 0.19 mM) and 2-h (+ 0.33 mM) post-load glucose values (both p <  0.01) were observed during the summer months. The correlations between fasting glucose, 1-h glucose, 2-h glucose, and HbA1c with average monthly temperatures confirmed this trend, with positive Pearson's correlations between 1-h and 2-h glucose with increasing average monthly temperatures, and negative correlations with fasting glucose and HbA1c. Further, umbilical cord C-peptide and glucose displayed negative Pearson's correlation with average monthly temperature, aligned with trends seen in the fasting plasma glucose. Overall prevalence of GDM did not display significant seasonal variations due to the opposing trends seen in the fasting versus 1-h and 2-h post-load values. CONCLUSION: A significant winter increase was observed for fasting plasma glucose, HbA1c, and HOMA-IR, which contrasted with changes in 1-h and 2-h post-load venous plasma glucose values. Interestingly, umbilical cord C-peptide and glucose displayed similar trends to that of the fasting plasma glucose. While overall prevalence of GDM did not vary significantly by seasons, this study illustrates that seasonality is indeed an additional factor when interpreting OGTT results for the diagnosis of GDM and provides new direction for future research into the seasonal adjustment of OGTT results.

Obstetric anal sphincter injuries among women with gestational diabetes and women without gestational diabetes: A NSW population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIs) are associated with maternal morbidity; however, it is uncertain whether gestational diabetes (GDM) is an independent risk factor when considering birthweight mode of birth and episiotomy. AIMS: To compare rates of OASIs between women with GDM and women without GDM by mode of birth and birthweight. To investigate the association between episiotomy, mode of birth and the risk of OASIs. METHODS: A population-based cohort study of women who gave birth vaginally in NSW, from 2007 to 2013. Rates of OASIs were compared between women with and without GDM, stratified by mode of birth, birthweight and a multi-categorical variable of mode of birth and episiotomy. Adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated by multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: The rate of OASIs was 3.6% (95% CI: 2.6-2.7) vs 2.6% (95% CI: 3.4-2.8; P < 0.001) among women with and without GDM, respectively. Women with GDM and a macrosomic baby (birthweight ≥ 4000 g) had a higher risk of OASIs with forceps (aOR 1.76, 95% CI: 1.08-2.86, P = 0.02) or vacuum (aOR 1.89, 95% CI: 1.17-3.04, P = 0.01), compared with those without GDM. For primiparous women with GDM and all women without GDM, an episiotomy with forceps was associated with lower odds of OASIs than forceps only (primiparous GDM, forceps-episiotomy aOR 2.49, 95% CI: 2.00-3.11, forceps aOR 5.30, 95% CI: 3.72-7.54), (primiparous without GDM, forceps-episiotomy aOR 2.71, 95% CI: 2.55-2.89, forceps aOR 5.95, 95% CI: 5.41-6.55) and (multiparous without GDM, forceps-episiotomy aOR 3.75, 95% CI: 3.12-4.50, forceps aOR 6.20, 95% CI: 4.96-7.74). CONCLUSION: Women with GDM and a macrosomic baby should be counselled about the increased risk of OASIs with both vacuum and forceps. With forceps birth, this risk can be partially mitigated by performing a concomitant episiotomy.

Cesarean section and diabetes during pregnancy: An NSW population study using the Robson classification.

AIM: The aim of this study was to identify the main contributors to cesarean section (CS) among women with and without diabetes during pregnancy using the Robson classification and to compare CS rates within Robson groups. METHODS: A population-based cohort study was conducted of all women who gave birth in New South Wales, Australia, between 2002 and 2012. Women with pregestational diabetes (types 1 and 2) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) were grouped using the Robson classification. Adjusted odd ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: The total CS rate was 53.6% for women with pregestational diabetes, 36.8% for women with GDM and 28.5% for women without diabetes. Previous CS contributed the most to the total number of CS in all populations. For preterm birth, the contribution to the total was 20.5% for women with pregestational diabetes and 5.7% for women without diabetes. Compared to women without diabetes, for nulliparous with pregestational diabetes, the odds of CS was 1.4 (95% CI, 1.1-1.8) for spontaneous labor and 2.0 (95% CI, 1.7-2.3) for induction of labor. CONCLUSION: A history of CS was the main contributor to the total CS. Reducing primary CS is the first step to lowering the high rate of CS among women with diabetes. Nulliparous women were more likely to have CS if they had pregestational diabetes. This increase was also evident in all multiparous women giving birth. The high rate of preterm births and CS reflects the clinical issues for women with diabetes during pregnancy.

Mothers after Gestational Diabetes in Australia (MAGDA): A Randomised Controlled Trial of a Postnatal Diabetes Prevention Program.

BACKGROUND: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an increasingly prevalent risk factor for type 2 diabetes. We evaluated the effectiveness of a group-based lifestyle modification program in mothers with prior GDM within their first postnatal year. METHODS AND FINDINGS: In this study, 573 women were randomised to either the intervention (n = 284) or usual care (n = 289). At baseline, 10% had impaired glucose tolerance and 2% impaired fasting glucose. The diabetes prevention intervention comprised one individual session, five group sessions, and two telephone sessions. Primary outcomes were changes in diabetes risk factors (weight, waist circumference, and fasting blood glucose), and secondary outcomes included achievement of lifestyle modification goals and changes in depression score and cardiovascular disease risk factors. The mean changes (intention-to-treat [ITT] analysis) over 12 mo were as follows: -0.23 kg body weight in intervention group (95% CI -0.89, 0.43) compared with +0.72 kg in usual care group (95% CI 0.09, 1.35) (change difference -0.95 kg, 95% CI -1.87, -0.04; group by treatment interaction p = 0.04); -2.24 cm waist measurement in intervention group (95% CI -3.01, -1.42) compared with -1.74 cm in usual care group (95% CI -2.52, -0.96) (change difference -0.50 cm, 95% CI -1.63, 0.63; group by treatment interaction p = 0.389); and +0.18 mmol/l fasting blood glucose in intervention group (95% CI 0.11, 0.24) compared with +0.22 mmol/l in usual care group (95% CI 0.16, 0.29) (change difference -0.05 mmol/l, 95% CI -0.14, 0.05; group by treatment interaction p = 0.331). Only 10% of women attended all sessions, 53% attended one individual and at least one group session, and 34% attended no sessions. Loss to follow-up was 27% and 21% for the intervention and control groups, respectively, primarily due to subsequent pregnancies. Study limitations include low exposure to the full intervention and glucose metabolism profiles being near normal at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Although a 1-kg weight difference has the potential to be significant for reducing diabetes risk, the level of engagement during the first postnatal year was low. Further research is needed to improve engagement, including participant involvement in study design; it is potentially more effective to implement annual diabetes screening until women develop prediabetes before offering an intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12610000338066.

Type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes: greater than fourfold risk among Indigenous compared with non-Indigenous Australian women.

BACKGROUND: Gestational diabetes is associated with a high risk of type 2 diabetes. However, progression rates among Indigenous women in Australia who experience high prevalence of gestational diabetes are unknown. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study includes all births to women at a regional hospital in Far North Queensland, Australia, coded as having 'gestational diabetes' from 1 January 2004 to 31 December 2010 (1098 births) and receiving laboratory postpartum screening from 1 January 2004 to 31 December 2011 (n = 483 births). Women who did not receive postpartum screening were excluded from the denominator. Data were linked between hospital electronic records, routinely collected birth data and laboratories, with sample validation by reviews of medical records. Analysis was conducted using Cox-proportional regression models. RESULTS: Indigenous women had a greater than fourfold risk of developing type 2 diabetes within 8 years of having gestational diabetes, compared with non-Indigenous women (hazards ratio 4.55, 95% confidence interval 2.63-7.88, p < 0.0001). Among women receiving postpartum screening tests, by 3, 5 and 7 years postpartum, 21.9% (15.8-30.0%), 25.5% (18.6-34.3%) and 42.4% (29.6-58.0%) Indigenous women were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes, respectively, compared with 4.2% (2.5-7.2%), 5.7% (3.3-9.5%) and 13.5% (7.3-24.2%) non-Indigenous women. Multivariate analysis showed an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes among women with an early pregnancy body mass index ≥25 kg/m(2) , only partially breastfeeding at hospital discharge and gestational diabetes diagnosis prior to 17 weeks gestation. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that, compared with non-Indigenous women, Indigenous Australian women have a greater than fourfold risk of developing type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes. Strategies are urgently needed to reduce rates of type 2 diabetes by supporting a healthy weight and breastfeeding and to improve postpartum screening among Indigenous women with gestational diabetes. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evaluation of an international educational programme for health care professionals on best practice in the management of a perinatal death: IMproving Perinatal mortality Review and Outcomes Via Education (IMPROVE).

BACKGROUND: Stillbirths and neonatal deaths are devastating events for both parents and clinicians and are global public health concerns. Careful clinical management after these deaths is required, including appropriate investigation and assessment to determine cause (s) to prevent future losses, and to improve bereavement care for families. An educational programme for health care professionals working in maternal and child health has been designed to address these needs according to the Perinatal Society of Australia and New Zealand Guideline for Perinatal Mortality: IMproving Perinatal mortality Review and Outcomes Via Education (IMPROVE). The programme has a major focus on stillbirth and is delivered as six interactive skills-based stations. We aimed to determine participants' pre- and post-programme knowledge of and confidence in the management of perinatal deaths, along with satisfaction with the programme. We also aimed to determine suitability for international use. METHODS: The IMPROVE programme was delivered to health professionals in maternity hospitals in all seven Australian states and territories and modified for use internationally with piloting in Vietnam, Fiji, and the Netherlands (with the assistance of the International Stillbirth Alliance, ISA). Modifications were made to programme materials in consultation with local teams and included translation for the Vietnam programme. Participants completed pre- and post-programme evaluation questionnaires on knowledge and confidence on six key components of perinatal death management as well as a satisfaction questionnaire. RESULTS: Over the period May 2012 to May 2015, 30 IMPROVE workshops were conducted, including 26 with 758 participants in Australia and four with 136 participants internationally. Evaluations showed a significant improvement between pre- and post-programme knowledge and confidence in all six stations and overall, and a high degree of satisfaction in all settings. CONCLUSIONS: The IMPROVE programme has been well received in Australia and in three different international settings and is now being made available through ISA. Future research is required to determine whether the immediate improvements in knowledge are sustained with less causes of death being classified as unknown, changes in clinical practice and improvement in parents' experiences with care. The suitability for this programme in low-income countries also needs to be established.

Diabetes in pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and proposed codification of definitions.

Rising rates of diabetes in pregnancy have led to an escalation in research in this area. As in any area of clinical research, definitions of outcomes vary from study to study, making it difficult to compare research findings and draw conclusions. Our aim was to compile and create a repository of definitions, which could then be used universally. A systematic review of the literature was performed on published and ongoing randomized controlled trials in the area of diabetes in pregnancy between 01 Jan 2000 and 01 Jun 2012. Other sources included the World Health Organization and Academic Society Statements. The advice of experts was sought when appropriate definitions were lacking. Among the published randomized controlled trials on diabetes and pregnancy, 171 abstracts were retrieved, 64 full texts were reviewed and 53 were included. Among the ongoing randomized controlled trials published in ClinicalTrials.gov, 90 protocols were retrieved and 25 were finally included. The definitions from these were assembled and the final maternal definitions and foetal definitions were agreed upon by consensus. It is our hope that the definitions we have provided (i) will be widely used in the reporting of future studies in the area of diabetes in pregnancy, that they will (ii) facilitate future systematic reviews and formal meta analyses and (iii) ultimately improve outcomes for mothers and babies.

Counterpoint: Establishing consensus in the diagnosis of GDM following the HAPO study.

The International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) recommended a new protocol of 1-step testing with a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test for gestational diabetes in 2010. Since that time, these recommendations have been carefully scrutinized and accepted by a variety of organizations, but challenged or rejected by others. In the current review, we present more details regarding the background to the development of the IADPSG recommendations and seek to place them in context with the available epidemiologic and randomized controlled trial data. In this "counterpoint," we also provide specific rebuttal for errors of fact and disputed contentions provided by Long and Cundy in their 2013 article in Current Diabetes Reports.

Birthplace in New South Wales, Australia: an analysis of perinatal outcomes using routinely collected data.

BACKGROUND: The outcomes for women who give birth in hospital compared with at home are the subject of ongoing debate. We aimed to determine whether a retrospective linked data study using routinely collected data was a viable means to compare perinatal and maternal outcomes and interventions in labour by planned place of birth at the onset of labour in one Australian state. METHODS: A population-based cohort study was undertaken using routinely collected linked data from the New South Wales Perinatal Data Collection, Admitted Patient Data Collection, Register of Congenital Conditions, Registry of Birth Deaths and Marriages and the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Eight years of data provided a sample size of 258,161 full-term women and their infants. The primary outcome was a composite outcome of neonatal mortality and morbidity as used in the Birthplace in England study. RESULTS: Women who planned to give birth in a birth centre or at home were significantly more likely to have a normal labour and birth compared with women in the labour ward group. There were no statistically significant differences in stillbirth and early neonatal deaths between the three groups, although we had insufficient statistical power to test reliably for these differences. CONCLUSION: This study provides information to assist the development and evaluation of different places of birth across Australia. It is feasible to examine perinatal and maternal outcomes by planned place of birth using routinely collected linked data, although very large data sets will be required to measure rare outcomes associated with place of birth in a low risk population, especially in countries like Australia where homebirth rates are low.

Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus among Indigenous women and comparison with non-Indigenous Australian women: 1990-2009.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on long-term trends in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) prevalence in Australia is lacking. AIMS: To assess and compare trends in GDM prevalence among Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analysis of crude and age-adjusted GDM prevalence over time by Indigenous status and age, using routinely collected midwives data from Australian states and territories on mothers giving birth from 1990 to 2009. RESULTS: Despite considerable data variation, particularly in 1990-1999, and likely underestimation of GDM prevalence, crude and age-adjusted GDM prevalences were higher in Indigenous than non-Indigenous women at all time-points (4.7% vs 3.1% in 1990-1999; 5.1% vs 4.5% in 2000-2009, P < 0.0001). Data variability precluded quantitative assessment of trends and changes in prevalence ratios before 2000. From 2000 to 2009, GDM prevalence increased significantly among Indigenous women by a mean 2.6% annually (Ptrend <0.0001), and non-Indigenous women by 3.2% annually (Ptrend <0.0001), with no significant trend in the age-adjusted Indigenous/non-Indigenous prevalence ratios (PR) (P = 0.34). GDM prevalence increased significantly with age (P < 0.0001), although the increase with age was significantly greater among Indigenous women (PR 5.34 (4.94-5.77), ≥35 vs <25 years) compared to non-Indigenous women (PR 3.72 (3.64-3.81), ≥35 vs <25 years), Pinteraction <0.0001. CONCLUSIONS: Bearing data quality concerns in mind, GDM prevalence is increasing rapidly among Australian women, more than doubling in non-Indigenous women between 1990 and 2009. Prevalence is consistently higher in Indigenous versus non-Indigenous women, with statistically consistent differences between the groups in recent years. The marked increase in prevalence with age highlights an important period for prevention, particularly for Indigenous women.

Identifying maternity services in public hospitals in rural and remote Australia.

OBJECTIVE: This paper articulates the importance of accurately identifying maternity services. It describes the process and challenges of identifying the number, level and networks of rural and remote maternity services in public hospitals serving communities of between 1000 and 25000 people across Australia, and presents the findings of this process. METHODS: Health departments and the national government's websites, along with lists of public hospitals, were used to identify all rural and remote Australian public hospitals offering maternity services in small towns. State perinatal reports were reviewed to establish numbers of births by hospital. The level of maternity services and networks of hospitals within which services functioned were determined via discussion with senior jurisdictional representatives. RESULTS: In all, 198 rural and remote public hospitals offering maternity services were identified. There were challenges in sourcing information on maternity services to generate an accurate national picture. The nature of information about maternity services held centrally by jurisdictions varied, and different frameworks were used to describe minimum requirements for service levels. Service networks appeared to be based on a combination of individual links, geography and transport infrastructure. CONCLUSIONS: The lack of readily available centralised and comparable information on rural and remote maternity services has implications for policy review and development, equity, safety and quality, network development and planning. Accountability for services and capacity to identify problems is also compromised.

Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes.

BACKGROUND: It is controversial whether maternal hyperglycemia less severe than that in diabetes mellitus is associated with increased risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: A total of 25,505 pregnant women at 15 centers in nine countries underwent 75-g oral glucose-tolerance testing at 24 to 32 weeks of gestation. Data remained blinded if the fasting plasma glucose level was 105 mg per deciliter (5.8 mmol per liter) or less and the 2-hour plasma glucose level was 200 mg per deciliter (11.1 mmol per liter) or less. Primary outcomes were birth weight above the 90th percentile for gestational age, primary cesarean delivery, clinically diagnosed neonatal hypoglycemia, and cord-blood serum C-peptide level above the 90th percentile. Secondary outcomes were delivery before 37 weeks of gestation, shoulder dystocia or birth injury, need for intensive neonatal care, hyperbilirubinemia, and preeclampsia. RESULTS: For the 23,316 participants with blinded data, we calculated adjusted odds ratios for adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with an increase in the fasting plasma glucose level of 1 SD (6.9 mg per deciliter [0.4 mmol per liter]), an increase in the 1-hour plasma glucose level of 1 SD (30.9 mg per deciliter [1.7 mmol per liter]), and an increase in the 2-hour plasma glucose level of 1 SD (23.5 mg per deciliter [1.3 mmol per liter]). For birth weight above the 90th percentile, the odds ratios were 1.38 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.32 to 1.44), 1.46 (1.39 to 1.53), and 1.38 (1.32 to 1.44), respectively; for cord-blood serum C-peptide level above the 90th percentile, 1.55 (95% CI, 1.47 to 1.64), 1.46 (1.38 to 1.54), and 1.37 (1.30 to 1.44); for primary cesarean delivery, 1.11 (95% CI, 1.06 to 1.15), 1.10 (1.06 to 1.15), and 1.08 (1.03 to 1.12); and for neonatal hypoglycemia, 1.08 (95% CI, 0.98 to 1.19), 1.13 (1.03 to 1.26), and 1.10 (1.00 to 1.12). There were no obvious thresholds at which risks increased. Significant associations were also observed for secondary outcomes, although these tended to be weaker. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate strong, continuous associations of maternal glucose levels below those diagnostic of diabetes with increased birth weight and increased cord-blood serum C-peptide levels.

Lived experience of gestational diabetes mellitus among immigrant South Asian women in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Women from South Asia have a high incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) placing them at risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Despite the higher rates of GDM in this group, there are no studies of their experiences of living with GDM in Australia or elsewhere. AIMS: We aimed to explore the experiences and understandings of South Asian women in Melbourne, Australia, after diagnosis with GDM. METHODS: A qualitative approach was used. Face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted with 17 immigrant women from South Asia recently diagnosed with GDM. They were interviewed in the language of their choice at two time points: in pregnancy after GDM diagnosis and at six weeks postpartum. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify common patterns and salient themes within and across narratives, also taking into account any divergent experiences. RESULTS: Before the diagnosis of GDM, women's knowledge and awareness of any diabetes were low. Women and their partners were upset by the diagnosis. Dietary advice received was seen to be challenging in the context of culturally different food habits and consequently managing diet after diagnosis proved difficult. Different attitudes to exercise in pregnancy also raised issues for women. Women said they would try their best to maintain lifestyle modifications postnatally, but were uncertain about sustaining these in the long term. CONCLUSION: South Asian women require culturally appropriate advice regarding strategies to reduce their risk of GDM as early as possible in pregnancy, ideally at the time pregnancy is confirmed.

The ADIPS Pilot National Diabetes in Pregnancy Benchmarking Programme.

BACKGROUND: To test the feasibility of benchmarking the care of women with pregnancies complicated by hyperglycaemia. METHODS: A retrospective audit of volunteer diabetes services in Australia and New Zealand involving singleton pregnancies resulting in live births between 2014 and 2020. Ranges are shown and compared across services. RESULTS: The audit included 10,144 pregnancies (gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) = 8696; type 1 diabetes (T1D) = 435; type 2 diabetes (T2D) = 1013) from 11 diabetes services. Among women with GDM, diet alone was used in 39.4% (ranging among centres from 28.8-57.3%), metformin alone in 18.8% (0.4-43.7%), and metformin and insulin in 10.1% (1.5-23.4%); when compared between sites, all p < 0.001. Birth was by elective caesarean in 12.1% (3.6-23.7%) or emergency caesarean in 9.5% (3.5-21.2%) (all p < 0.001). Preterm births (<37 weeks) ranged from 3.7% to 9.4% (p < 0.05), large for gestational age 10.3-26.7% (p < 0.001), admission to special care nursery 16.7-25.0% (p < 0.001), and neonatal hypoglycaemia (<2.6 mmol/L) 6.0-27.0% (p < 0.001). Many women with T1D and T2D had limited pregnancy planning including first trimester hyperglycaemia (HbA1c > 6.5% (48 mmol/mol)), 78.4% and 54.6%, respectively (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Management of maternal hyperglycaemia and pregnancy outcomes varied significantly. The maintenance and extension of this benchmarking service provides opportunities to identify policy and clinical approaches to improve pregnancy outcomes among women with hyperglycaemia in pregnancy.

Type 2 diabetes after a pregnancy with gestational diabetes among first nations women in Australia: The PANDORA study.

AIMS: To determine among First Nations and Europid pregnant women the cumulative incidence and predictors of postpartum type 2 diabetes and prediabetes and describe postpartum cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk profiles. METHODS: PANDORA is a prospective longitudinal cohort of women recruited in pregnancy. Ethnic-specific rates of postpartum type 2 diabetes and prediabetes were reported for women with diabetes in pregnancy (DIP), gestational diabetes (GDM) or normoglycaemia in pregnancy over a short follow-up of 2.5 years (n = 325). Pregnancy characteristics and CVD risk profiles according to glycaemic status, and factors associated with postpartum diabetes/prediabetes were examined in First Nations women. RESULTS: The cumulative incidence of postpartum type 2 diabetes among women with DIP or GDM were higher for First Nations women (48%, 13/27, women with DIP, 13%, 11/82, GDM), compared to Europid women (nil DIP or GDM p < 0.001). Characteristics associated with type 2 diabetes/prediabetes among First Nations women with GDM/DIP included, older age, multiparity, family history of diabetes, higher glucose values, insulin use and body mass index (BMI). CONCLUSIONS: First Nations women experience a high incidence of postpartum type 2 diabetes after GDM/DIP, highlighting the need for culturally responsive policies at an individual and systems level, to prevent diabetes and its complications.

Neonatal hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia and monogenic diabetes due to a heterozygous mutation of the HNF4A gene.

Recent research has demonstrated that mutations of the hepatocyte nuclear factor 4-alpha (HNF4A) gene are associated with neonatal hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia. Mutations of this gene also cause one of the subtypes of monogenic diabetes, a form of diabetes formerly known as maturity-onset diabetes of the young. This article describes a family discovered to have a novel frame-shift mutation of the HNF4A gene in the setting of early-onset maternal diabetes and severe neonatal hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia. The implications of a diagnosis of HNF4A gene mutation for obstetric and paediatric practice are discussed.

Maternal and perinatal outcomes by planned place of birth in Australia 2000 - 2012: a linked population data study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare perinatal and maternal outcomes for Australian women with uncomplicated pregnancies according to planned place of birth, that is, in hospital labour wards, birth centres or at home. DESIGN: A population-based retrospective design, linking and analysing routinely collected electronic data. Analysis comprised χ2 tests and binary logistic regression for categorical data, yielding adjusted ORs. Continuous data were analysed using analysis of variance. SETTING: All eight Australian states and territories. PARTICIPANTS: Women with uncomplicated pregnancies who gave birth between 2000 and 2012 to a singleton baby in cephalic presentation at between 37 and 41 completed weeks' gestation. Of the 1 251 420 births, 1 171 703 (93.6%) were planned in hospital labour wards, 71 505 (5.7%) in birth centres and 8212 (0.7%) at home. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Mode of birth, normal labour and birth, interventions and procedures during labour and birth, maternal complications, admission to special care/high dependency or intensive care units (mother or infant) and perinatal mortality (intrapartum stillbirth and neonatal death). RESULTS: Compared with planned hospital births, the odds of normal labour and birth were over twice as high in planned birth centre births (adjusted OR (AOR) 2.72; 99% CI 2.63 to 2.81) and nearly six times as high in planned home births (AOR 5.91; 99% CI 5.15 to 6.78). There were no statistically significant differences in the proportion of intrapartum stillbirths, early or late neonatal deaths between the three planned places of birth. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first Australia-wide study to examine outcomes by planned place of birth. For healthy women in Australia having an uncomplicated pregnancy, planned births in birth centres or at home are associated with positive maternal outcomes although the number of homebirths was small overall. There were no significant differences in the perinatal mortality rate, although the absolute numbers of deaths were very small and therefore firm conclusions cannot be drawn about perinatal mortality outcomes.