Effect of Nonsupplemented Low-Protein Diet on the Initiation of Renal Replacement Therapy in Stage 4 and 5 Chronic Kidney Disease: A Retrospective Multicenter Cohort Study in Japan.

OBJECTIVE: In subjects with chronic kidney disease (CKD), the effect of low-protein diet (LPD) is expected to alleviate uremic symptoms. However, whether LPD is effective in preventing loss of kidney function is controversial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between LPD and renal outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter cohort study of 325 patients who suffered CKD stage 4 and 5 with eGFR ≥10 mL/min/1.73 m,2 between January 2008 and December 2014. The primary diseases of the patients were chronic glomerulonephritis (47.7%), nephrosclerosis (16.9%), diabetic nephropathy (26.2%), and others (9.2%). The patients were divided into four groups, based on the mean protein intake (PI)/day, group 1 (n = 76): PI < 0.5 g/kg ideal body weight/day, group 2 (n = 56): 0.5 ≤ PI < 0.6 g/kg/day, group 3 (n = 110): 0.6 ≤ PI < 0.8 g/kg/day, group 4 (n = 83): PI ≥ 0.8 g/kg/day. Dietary supplementation with essential amino acids and ketoanalogues was not used. The outcome measure was occurrence of renal replacement therapy (RRT) (hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, renal transplantation (excluding preemptive transplantation)) and all-cause mortality until December 2018. Cox regression models were used to examine whether LPD was associated with the risk of outcomes. RESULTS: During a mean follow-up of 4.1 ± 2.2 years. Thirty-three patients (10.2%) died of all causes, 163 patients (50.2%) needed to start RRT, and 6 patients (1.8%) received a renal transplant. LPD therapy of 0.5 g/kg/day or less was significantly related to a lower risk of RRT and all-cause mortality [Hazard ratio = 0.656; 95% confidence interval, 0.438 to 0.984, P = .042]. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that non-supplemented LPD therapy of 0.5 g/kg/day or less may prolong the initiation of RRT in stage 4 and 5 CKD patients.

Skipping breakfast regimen induces an increase in body weight and a decrease in muscle weight with a shifted circadian rhythm in peripheral tissues of mice.

Meal timing is a key factor in synchronising the circadian clock in peripheral tissues. Circadian disorders are associated with the metabolic syndrome. Previously, we demonstrated that a skipping breakfast regimen (SBR) with a high-fat diet increased body weight gain in rats. In this study, we investigated whether SBR with a normal diet led to abnormal lipid metabolism and muscle metabolism in mice. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed during zeitgeber time (ZT) 12-24 in the control group and ZT 16-24 in the SBR group for 2 weeks. SBR mice showed increased body weight gain and perirenal adipose tissue weight. The plantar muscle weight was decreased in the SBR group compared with that in the control group. Furthermore, SBR delayed the circadian oscillations in clock gene expression in peripheral tissues, such as the liver, adipose tissue and muscle, as well as the oscillations in the expression of lipid metabolism-related genes in the liver and adipose tissue. These results suggest that skipping breakfast over a long period of time is associated with a risk of obesity, the metabolic syndrome and muscle loss, such as sarcopenia.

Characterization and Antioxidant Activity of Mannans from Saccharomyces cerevisiae with Different Molecular Weight.

Polysaccharides were extracted from natural sources with various biological activities, which are strongly influenced by their chemical structure and molecular weight. In this research, mannans polysaccharides were obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisiae by ethanol precipitation. The molecular weight of YM50, YM70, and YM90 mannans was 172.90 kDa, 87.09 kDa, and 54.05 kDa, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy of YM 90 mannans showed a rough surface with numerous cavities, while the surfaces of YM50 and YM70 were relatively smooth. Sepharose CL-6B and FTIR indicated that mannans had the characteristic bands of polysaccharides. The antioxidant activities of polysaccharides were evaluated in vitro using various assays. Mannans showed a good scavenging activity of DPPH radicals which depend on the molecular weight and concentration, and a higher scavenging activity of hydroxyl radical than ferric-reducing power activities. For the three types of mannans, cytotoxicity and hemolytic activity were rarely detected in mice erythrocytes and Caco-2 cells. Those results could contribute to the further application of mannans from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the food and medicine industry.

Circadian rhythm-dependent induction of hepatic lipogenic gene expression in rats fed a high-sucrose diet.

Metabolic syndrome has become a global health challenge and was recently reported to be positively correlated with increased sucrose consumption. Mechanistic analyses of excess sucrose-induced progression of metabolic syndrome have been focused mainly on abnormal hepatic lipogenesis, and the exact contribution of excess sucrose to metabolic disorders remains controversial. Considering that carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms exhibit clear circadian rhythms, here we investigated the possible contribution of diurnal oscillations to responses of hepatic lipid metabolism to excess sucrose. We found that excess sucrose dose-dependently promotes fatty liver and hyperlipidemia in in rats fed a high-sucrose diet (HSD). We observed that excess sucrose enhances the oscillation amplitudes of the expression of clock genes along with the levels of hepatic lipid and carbohydrate metabolism-related mRNAs that increase lipogenesis. We did not observe similar changes in the levels of the transcription factors regulating the expression of these genes. This suggested that the excess sucrose-induced, circadian rhythm-dependent amplification of lipogenesis is post-transcriptionally regulated via the stability of metabolic gene transcripts. Of note, our findings also provide evidence that fructose causes some of the HSD-induced, circadian rhythm-dependent alterations in lipogenic gene expression. Our discovery of HSD-induced circadian rhythm-dependent alterations in lipogenesis at the post-transcriptional level may inform future studies investigating the complex relationships among sucrose uptake, circadian rhythm, and metabolic enzyme expression. Our findings could contribute to the design of chrono-nutritional interventions to prevent or manage the development of fatty liver and hyperlipidemia in sucrose-induced metabolic syndrome.

Defects in centromeric/pericentromeric histone H2A T120 phosphorylation by hBUB1 cause chromosome missegregation producing multinucleated cells.

Histone H2A phosphorylation plays a role both in chromatin condensation during mitosis and in transcriptional activation during the G1/S transition. Bub1 and NHK1/VRK1 have been identified as histone H2A kinases. However, little is known about the importance of histone H2A phosphorylation in chromosome segregation. Here, we expressed recombinant hBUB1 and confirmed that it phosphorylates histone H2A T120 in the in vitro-assembled nucleosome. Knockdown (KD) of BUB1 decreases bulk H2A T120 phosphorylation in HeLa cells, whereas hBUB1 is upregulated during mitosis, which corresponds with H2A T120 phosphorylation. ChIP-qPCR of the DXZ1 centromeric and γ-ALR pericentromeric region showed that BUB1 localizes to this region and increases local H2A T120 phosphorylation during M phase. BUB1 KD did not induce apoptosis but increased the M phase cell population, as detected by flow cytometry. BUB1 KD also caused an abnormal metaphase and telophase, resulting in multinucleated cells and impaired cancer cell growth both in vitro and in vivo. Over-expression of the histone H2A T120D or T120E mutations, which mimic phosphorylated threonine, decreased the number of multinucleated cells caused by BUB1 KD. These results strengthen the apparent importance of BUB1-mediated H2A T120 phosphorylation in normal mitosis.

Asymmetric Allylic Alkylation of ß-Ketoesters with Allylic Alcohols by a Nickel/Diphosphine Catalyst.

Asymmetric allylic alkylation of ß-ketoesters with allylic alcohols catalyzed by [Ni(cod)2]/(S)-H8-BINAP was found to be a superior synthetic protocol for constructing quaternary chiral centers at the α-position of ß-ketoesters. The reaction proceeded in high yield and with high enantioselectivity using various ß-ketoesters and allylic alcohols, without any additional activators. The versatility of this methodology for accessing useful and enantioenriched products was demonstrated.

Phenobarbital reduces blood glucose and gluconeogenesis through down-regulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene expression in rats.

The regulatory mechanism of phosphoenolpyruvate carboykinase (GTP) (EC 4.1.1.32) (PEPCK) gene expression and gluconeogenesis by phenobarbital (PB), which is known to induce drug-metabolizing enzymes, was investigated. Higher level of PEPCK mRNA was observed in spherical rat primary hepatocytes on EHS-gel than monolayer hepatocytes on TIC (type I collagen). We found that PB directly suppressed PEPCK gene expression in spherical hepatocytes on EHS-gel, but not in those on TIC. PB strongly suppressed cAMP-dependent induction of PEPCK gene expression. Tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT), another gluconeogenic enzyme, was induced by cAMP, but not suppressed by PB. Chronic administration of PB reduced hepatic PEPCK mRNA in streptozotocin-induced diabetic and nondiabetic rats, and PB reduced blood glucose level in diabetic rats. Increased TAT mRNA in diabetic rats was not suppressed by PB. These results indicated that PB-dependent reduction is specific to PEPCK. From pyrvate challenge test, PB suppressed the increased gluconeogenesis in diabetic rats. PEPCK gene promoter activity was suppressed by PB in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, we found that spherical hepatocytes cultured on EHS-gel are capable to respond to PB to suppress PEPCK gene expression. Moreover, our results indicate that hypoglycemic action of PB result from transcriptional repression of PEPCK gene and subsequent suppression of gluconeogenesis.

Dietary freshwater clam (Corbicula fluminea) extract suppresses accumulation of hepatic lipids and increases in serum cholesterol and aminotransferase activities induced by dietary chloretone in rats.

We investigated the ameliorative effect of freshwater clam extract (FCE) on fatty liver, hypercholesterolemia, and liver injury in rats exposed to chloretone. Furthermore, we examined the effects of major FCE components (fat and protein fractions) to determine the active components in FCE. Chloretone increased serum aminotransferase activities and led to hepatic lipid accumulation. Serum aminotransferase activities and hepatic lipid content were lower in rats fed total FCE or fat/protein fractions of FCE. Expression of fatty acid synthase and fatty acid desaturase genes was upregulated by chloretone. Total FCE and fat/protein fractions of FCE suppressed the increase in gene expression involved in fatty acid synthesis. Serum cholesterol levels increased twofold upon chloretone exposure. Total FCE or fat/protein fractions of FCE showed hypocholesterolemic effects in rats with hypercholesterolemia induced by chloretone. These suggest that FCE contains at least two active components against fatty liver, hypercholesterolemia, and liver injury in rats exposed to chloretone.

Direct Molecular Action of Taurine on Hepatic Gene Expression Associated with the Amelioration of Hypercholesterolemia in Rats.

Taurine can ameliorate hypercholesterolemia by facilitating cholesterol efflux and increasing cytochrome P450 7A1 (CYP7A1) without clear underlying molecular mechanisms. This study aims to elucidate the molecular action of taurine in diet-induced hypercholesterolemia. Male Wistar rats were fed a high cholesterol diet containing 5% taurine for 14 days. Three-dimensional primary hepatocytes from rats were exposed to 10 mM taurine for 24 h. Transcriptome analyses of both the liver and hepatocytes were performed using DNA microarray. Taurine significantly decreased serum cholesterol levels and increased hepatic CYP7A1 mRNA levels and transcription rates in rats. Taurine altered the expression of seventy-seven genes in the liver, involving lipid, drug, amino acid metabolism, and gluconeogenesis pathways. The small heterodimer partner (SHP), a transcription factor regulated by taurine, was suppressed. "Network analysis" revealed a negative correlation between the SHP and induction of CYP7A1 and cytochrome P450 8B1 (CYP8B1). However, CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 levels were not altered by taurine in 3D-primary hepatocytes. Venn diagram analyses of the transcriptomes in both hepatocytes and the liver indicated a consistent upregulation of organic anion transporting polypeptide 2 (OATP2) and betaine homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT). Taurine ameliorated hypercholesterolemia in rats fed a high cholesterol diet by directly enhancing the hepatic expression of BHMT and OATP2, which modulated the SHP and induced CYP7A1 and CYP8B1, thereby promoting cholesterol catabolism and lowering blood cholesterol levels.

High sucrose diet-induced abnormal lipid metabolism in mice is related to the dysbiosis of gut microbiota.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Excess sucrose intake induces metabolic syndrome. In human, abnormal lipids metabolism like obesity, hyperlipidemia and fatty liver are induced. However, excess sucrose causes different phenotypes in different species. Based on our previous study, excess sucrose induced fatty liver and hyperlipidemia in rats. The phenotypes and mechanism of abnormal lipid metabolism in mice is unclear. We investigated the different phenotypes in 5 strains of mice and the relationship between gut microbiome and abnormal lipid metabolism in C57BL/6N mice. METHODS: We examined the effect of a high sucrose diet in 5 different strains of mice. Besides, to find out the relationship between gut microbiome and metabolic disorder induced by excess sucrose, C57BL/6N mice were fed with a high sucrose diet with or without antibiotics cocktail. RESULTS: A high sucrose diet induced obesity and fatty liver in inbred mice, whereas did not induce hyperlipidemia in all strains of mice. Moreover, a high sucrose diet changed the composition of gut microbiota in C57BL/6N mice. Antibiotics treatment alleviated the abnormal lipid metabolism induced by high sucrose diet by changing the composition of gut short chain fatty acids. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicates that the phenotypes of metabolic syndrome are influenced by genetic factors. Furthermore, the dysbiosis of gut microbiome caused by excess sucrose may contribute to the development of abnormal lipid metabolism via its metabolites.

Delayed feeding of a high-sucrose diet led to increased body weight by affecting the circadian rhythm of body temperature and hepatic lipid-metabolism genes in rats.

Skipping breakfast is an irregular feeding behavior, typically in young people. In our previous study, we established a 4 h-delayed feeding protocol for rats as a breakfast-skipping model and showed that the 4 h-delayed feeding of a high-fat diet led to body weight gain in rats. Excess sucrose induces metabolic syndrome and fatty liver. Recently, excess sucrose intake has received increased attention. Young people generally consume more sugar than adults do. In the present study, we investigated whether a 4 h-delayed feeding promoted high-sucrose diet-induced abnormalities in lipid metabolism, such as fatty liver and obesity in rats. The 4 h-delayed feeding rats showed increased body weight gain, although it did not induce fatty liver and hyperlipidemia compared to normal feeding rats. Serum insulin concentration during the feeding period was higher than in the control rats, suggesting that slight insulin resistance was induced by the 4 h-delayed feeding. The surge in body temperature was also delayed by 4 h in response to the 4 h-delayed feeding. This delay would result in less energy expenditure to increase body weight. The oscillations of hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism-related gene expression were delayed by almost 2-4 h, and the clock genes were delayed by approximately 2 h. The 4 h-delayed feeding induced weight gain by affecting body temperature, insulin resistance, and circadian oscillation of lipid metabolism-related genes in rats fed a high-sucrose diet, suggesting that a high sucrose intake with breakfast skipping leads to obesity.

Lyoprotectant Formulation and Optimization of the J-Aggregates Astaxanthin/BSA/Chitosan Nanosuspension.

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid with excellent antioxidant activity. However, this small lipid-soluble molecule is insoluble in water and has low stability. Although this situation can be improved when astaxanthin is prepared as a nanosuspension, the aqueous form is still not as convenient and safe as the dry powder form for storage, transport, and use. The lyophilization process provides better protection for thermosensitive materials, but this leads to collapse and agglomeration between nanoparticles. To improve this situation, appropriate lyophilization protectants are needed to offer support between the nanoparticles, such as sugars, amino acids, and hydroxy alcohols. The purpose of this work is to screen lyophilization protectants by single-factor experiments and response surface optimization experiments and then explore the optimal ratio of compound lyophilization protectants, and finally, make excellent astaxanthin/BSA/chitosan nanosuspension (ABC-NPs) lyophilized powder. The work shows that the optimal ratio of the compounding lyophilization protectant is 0.46% oligomeric mannose, 0.44% maltose, and 0.05% sorbitol (w/v). The ABC-NPs lyophilized powder prepared under the above conditions had a re-soluble particle size of 472 nm, with a ratio of 1.32 to the particle size of the sample before lyophilization. The lyophilized powder was all in the form of a pink layer. The sample was fluffy and dissolved entirely within 10 s by shaking with water. Consequently, it is expected to solve the problem of inconvenient storage and transportation of aqueous drugs and to expand the application of nanomedicine powders and tablets.

C3H/HeNSlc mouse with low phospholipid transfer protein expression showed dyslipidemia.

High serum levels of triglycerides (TG) and low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) increase the risk of coronary heart disease in humans. Herein, we first reported that the C3H/HeNSlc (C3H-S) mouse, a C3H/HeN-derived substrain, is a novel model for dyslipidemia. C3H-S showed hypertriglyceridemia and low total cholesterol (TC), HDL-C, and phospholipid (PL) concentrations. To identify the gene locus causing dyslipidemia in C3H-S, we performed genetic analysis. In F2 intercrosses between C3H-S mice and strains with normal serum lipids, the locus associated with serum lipids was identified as 163-168 Mb on chromosome 2. The phospholipid transfer protein (Pltp) gene was a candidate gene within this locus. Pltp expression and serum PLTP activity were markedly lower in C3H-S mice. Pltp expression was negatively correlated with serum TG and positively correlated with serum TC and HDL-C in F2 mice. Genome sequencing analysis revealed that an endogenous retrovirus (ERV) sequence called intracisternal A particle was inserted into intron 12 of Pltp in C3H-S. These results suggest that ERV insertion within Pltp causes aberrant splicing, leading to reduced Pltp expression in C3H-S. This study demonstrated the contribution of C3H-S to our understanding of the relationship between TG, TC, and PL metabolism via PLTP.

Taurine alleviated hepatic steatosis in oleic acid-treated-HepG2 cells and rats fed a high-fat diet.

Taurine has been proven in many trials to alleviate the symptoms of metabolic associated fatty liver disease. Here its protective effect for hepatic steatosis and modulation of AMP-activated protein kinase and insulin signaling pathway were investigated. Steatotic HepG2 cell established with oleic acid (0.05 mmol/L), treated with taurine (5 mmol/L), dorsomorphin (10 µmol/L) for 24 h. Sprague Dawley rats were divided into regular and high-fat diet (HFD) groups, and their corresponding taurine (70 or 350 mg/kg BW/d) groups, fed for 8 weeks. In steatotic cell, taurine reduced the TG concentration and SREBP-1c, PPARγ, FAS, ACC, SCD1 protein levels, decreased phosphorylation of mTOR, IRS1 (Ser302), increased phosphorylation of AMPKα, LKB1, PI3K, Akt, ACC. While dorsomorphin eliminated taurine's TG-lowering effect. In HFD-fed rats, taurine reduced liver TG, serum TG, ALT, AST, IL-1ß, IL-4, TNF-α. The effects of taurine on the main factors of fatty acid synthesis were mostly consistent with cell experiments, and the reduction of microRNAs (451, 33, 291b) was aligned with the improvement in LKB1 and AMPK expression in HFD rats. Taurine alleviated steatosis-induced inhibition of IRS1-PI3K-Akt pathway, but suppressed its positively regulated downstream factor mTOR. In parallel, taurine reduced steatosis by activating LKB1-AMPKα pathway via phosphorylation and no-phosphorylation manner, then inhibiting SREBP-1c directly or by suppressing mTOR phosphorylation.

A novel human hepatoma cell line, FLC-4, exhibits highly enhanced liver differentiation functions through the three-dimensional cell shape.

We characterized three-dimensional human hepatoma cell lines, functional liver cell (FLC) cell lines, to establish a highly differentiated hepatoma cell line. We investigated the effect of extracellular matrix and cell morphology on liver-specific gene expression in FLC cells. The hepatocyte nuclear factor-4α (HNF-4α) and other liver-specific gene expressions were enhanced in spherical FLC-4 cells on EHS-gel, but other human hepatoma cells such as HepG2 did not show the enhancement. Importantly, the liver-specific gene expression levels in spherical FLC-4 cells cultured on EHS-gel were comparable to those of human liver and were much higher than those of other human hepatoma cell lines. The major matrix components and growth factors in EHS-gel did not affect cell shape and liver functions. To exclude any effect of the extracellular matrix, we made spherical FLC-4 cells by actin filament disruption. The actin-disrupted spherical cells also showed an enhanced liver-specific gene expression. We concluded that three-dimensional cell shape per se is one of the most important determinants of liver differentiation functions in FLC-4 cells. Cell morphology-dependent induction of liver-specific gene expression was mediated through microtubule organization. In conclusion, differentiation of FLC-4 human hepatoma cell line can be enhanced to a human liver-like level through the three-dimensional cell shape in a microtubule-dependent manner.

Fabrication and characterization of the H/J-type aggregates astaxanthin/bovine serum albumin/chitosan nanoparticles.

Astaxanthin is a natural liposoluble ketocarotenoid with various biological activities. Hydrophobic astaxanthin with C2h symmetry can self-assembly form H-type aggregates and J-type aggregates in hydrated polar solvents. However, astaxanthin and its aggregates are limited by its water insolubility and chemical instability. Here, the biological macromolecules bovine serum albumin (BSA) and chitosan were chosen as protein-polysaccharides based delivery systems for astaxanthin aggregates by molecular self-assembly method. The precise prepared H-ABC-NPs and J-ABC-NPs suspensions were both near spheres with hydrodynamic size around 281 ± 9 nm and 368 ± 5 nm and zeta potentials around +26 mV and +30 mV, respectively. Two types of astaxanthin aggregates were distinguished, water-dispersible, and stable in nanocarriers through UV-vis spectra observation. The encapsulation efficiency of the astaxanthin in ABC-NPs was above 90 %. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and circular dichroism (CD) analyses indicated that the dominant driving forces of ABC-NPs formation mainly included electrostatic, hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. These results offer an elegant opportunity for the protein-polysaccharides delivery systems, and provide an important perspective for applying novel water-dispersed astaxanthin aggregates products in nutrition and medicine industry.

Favorable therapeutic efficacy of low-density lipoprotein apheresis for nephrotic syndrome with impaired renal function.

Many reports have shown the therapeutic efficacy of LDL apheresis (LDL-A) in drug-resistant nephrotic syndrome (NS) for improvement of heavy proteinuria and severely impaired renal function. To obtain comprehensive results in a large number of cases, a post hoc analysis of the Prospective Observational survey on the Long-Term Effects of the LDL-Apheresis on the Drug Resistant Nephrotic Syndrome (POLARIS) study was performed by stratifying enrolled cases according to the pretreatment estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) levels indicating normal (N) (≥60 ml/min/1.73 m2 ), moderately impaired (M) (≥30 to <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 ), and severely impaired (S) (<30 ml/min/1.73 m2 ) renal function. Significant improvements of proteinuria and renal function were found in Group N and, most interestingly, in Group M. A tendency for improvement in proteinuria was found in Group S. Most cases in all groups had not entered end-stage renal disease at 2 years after LDL-A treatment. These results suggest that LDL-A has therapeutic efficacy even in cases in which renal function has declined to 30 ml/min/1.73 m2 .

Regular feeding plays an important role in cholesterol homeostasis through the liver circadian clock.

RATIONALE: Peripheral clock control and the relevance of the circadian rhythm to physiology and disease are major questions in mammalian circadian biology. OBJECTIVE: We examined the physiological functions of the liver clock. METHODS AND RESULTS: We established a suppressed feeding schedule regimen constituting a high-cholesterol diet delivered every 6 hours without changes in energy and cholesterol intake. We found that rats exposed to this regimen developed hypercholesteremia. In the liver, the rhythmicity of expression of several clock genes was disrupted. Furthermore, the nocturnal expression of the CYP7A1 gene, which encodes the rate-limiting enzyme for the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids, was shifted to a diurnal pattern. Indeed, suppression of a regular feeding rhythm increased the secretion rate of very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol from the liver and decreased the excretion of fecal bile acids. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrated that not only the amount and quality of food but also the timing of meals has crucial health implications.

The fat and protein fractions of freshwater clam ( Corbicula fluminea) extract reduce serum cholesterol and enhance bile acid biosynthesis and sterol excretion in hypercholesterolaemic rats fed a high-cholesterol diet.

We investigated whether the fat and protein fractions of freshwater clam (Corbicula fluminea) extract (FCE) could ameliorate hypercholesterolaemia in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. We also explored the mechanism and the components that exert the hypocholesterolaemic effect of FCE. The doses of the fat and protein fractions were equivalent to those in 30 % FCE. The fat and protein fractions of FCE, two major components of FCE, significantly reduced the serum and hepatic cholesterol levels. The fat fraction more strongly reduced serum cholesterol levels than the same level of total FCE. The excretion of faecal neutral sterols increased in rats fed the total the FCE and the fat fraction of FCE. On the other hand, faecal bile acid levels were greater in rats fed the total FCE and the fat and protein fractions of FCE than in control animals. The hepatic gene expression of ATP-binding cassette transporter G5 and cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase was up-regulated by the administration of the total FCE and both the fat and protein fractions of FCE. These results showed that the fat and protein fractions of FCE had hypocholesterolaemic properties, and that these effects were greater with the fat fraction than with the protein fraction. The present study indicates that FCE exerts its hypocholesterolaemic effects through at least two different mechanisms, including enhanced excretion of neutral sterols and up-regulated biosynthesis of bile acids.

Delayed Meal Timing, a Breakfast Skipping Model, Increased Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Adipose Tissue Weight by Disintegrating Circadian Oscillation in Rats Fed a High-Cholesterol Diet.

Background: To investigate whether shifted timing of eating, breakfast skipping, induces alterations in the circadian clock and abnormal lipid metabolism, we have established a delayed meal timing (DMT) protocol for rats, which started eating food 4 h delay. In the present study, control and DMT rats were fed a high-cholesterol diet during zeitgeber time (ZT) 12-24 and ZT 16-4, respectively. The DMT protocol increased the hepatic lipids and epididymal adipose tissue weight without changes in food intake and body weight. The surge in body temperature was delayed by 4 h in the DMT group, suggesting that energy expenditure was decreased in response to DMT. The peaks of the diurnal rhythm of serum non-esterified fatty acids and insulin were delayed by 2 and 4 h due to DMT, respectively. The oscillation peaks of hepatic de novo fatty acid synthesis gene expression was delayed by 4 h in response to DMT, whereas the peak of hepatic clock genes were 2 h delayed or not by DMT. Although metabolic oscillation is considered to be controlled by clock genes, the disintegration rhythms between the clock genes and lipid metabolism-related genes were not observed in rats fed a high-fat diet in our previous study. These data suggest that the circadian rhythm of de novo fatty acid metabolism is regulated by timing of eating, but is not directly controlled by clock genes. The present study suggests that breakfast skipping would complicate fatty liver and body fat accumulation.