Association between ADHD symptoms and inhibition-related brain activity using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with deficits in inhibitory functions including interference control, inhibition of prepotent/automatic responses and suppression of already initiated responses. This study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to investigate the neural basis of these three forms of inhibition assessed by a recently developed behavioral protocol combining the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task in twenty-five young adults with inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity symptoms. The severity of ADHD symptoms was measured using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS). The concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) was assessed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and temporoparietal regions (TP) during the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task. Correlations yielded significant associations between ASRS scores and HbO concentration in frontal regions during blocks with stop-signal tasks, namely the right IFG, the left DLPFC and the left IFG. This study revealed that different types of inhibition involve unique frontal and temporoparietal activities and linked frontal dysfunction during the suppression of ongoing responses to the severity of ADHD symptoms.

Development of a Program based on Goal Management Training for Adolescents with Executive Dysfunctions Complaints.

This study aimed to develop a program based on Goal Management Training (GMT) and to investigate its effectiveness on executive functions, through formal instruments and an ecological task. Participants were 25 adolescents with complaints of executive dysfunctions. They underwent neuropsychological assessment of working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, planning, and intellectual ability. Participants also took part in a cooking activity and were evaluated for errors per action, of omission, activity performance time, recipe consultation. After, they were randomly allocated to an active control group (CG), which underwent psychoeducation sessions, and an experimental group (EG), stimulated through GMT in eight sessions. Then participants underwent another assessment and follow-up after 4 weeks. In post-intervention analyses, results showed an improvement in executive functions in EG, in the working memory measurement and time of the ecological activity (g = 1.78 and .93, respectively), IQ (g = -1.01), reasoning (g = -.89), flexibility (g = -1.21), and inhibition (g = -3.11). In follow-up evaluation, large-size effects were observed on flexibility (g = -2.95), inhibition (g = -5.78) and execution time of the ecological activity (g = .98). Significant interactions between assessment Time x Group revealed EG gains in IQ, scores in reasoning and flexibility. EG also had longer execution time in flexibility and inhibition tests. That is, EG had greater scores and probably was less impulsive in these tests. Furthermore, EG decreased the number of verifications and the time in the ecological task, that is, had a more efficient performance. Results suggest the intervention can be as instrument to promote executive function.

Validity evidence for the reading competence test of words and non-words.

This study sought evidence of validity for the Reading Competence Test of Words and Non-This study sought evidence of validity for the Reading Competence Test of Words and Non-words (in Portuguese: Teste de Competência de Leitura de Palavras e Pseudopalavras or TCLPP). This test evaluates silent reading of isolated items by asking the student to determine if presented items of written image-word pairs are correct or not. Two thousand nine hundred and ninety four students from the 1st to 4th grade in public Brazilian elementary schools, of both genders, and between the ages of 6 and 11 years, participated, collectively evaluated in the TCLPP. The results showed the TCLPP's sensitivity for discriminating competence in reading between grades, supporting evidence of validity based on the relationships between the various levels. The difficulty in the items was compatible with the theory on which the test is based, providing evidence of validity based on the response process. Finally, two factors which compose the test were verified, one involving logographic and phonological strategies, and the other, lexical, attesting to evidence of validity based on the internal structure.

Program for the Neuropsychological Stimulation of Cognition in Students: Impact, Effectiveness, and Transfer Effects on Student Cognitive Performance.

Despite the crucial role played by the executive functions (EF) to cognitive, emotional, and social development of children before and during school years, little attention has been given to construct and analyze the efficacy of programs that intend to develop them. The program of neuropsychological stimulation of cognition in students: emphasis on EF, or PENcE (an acronym from its original name in Portuguese, Programa de Estimulação Neuropsicológica da Cognição em Escolares: ênfase nas Funções Executivas), is an early and preventive intervention program for school-aged children, and implemented at school three times a week for 5 months. The PENcE was structured in four modules, each focusing on a different executive component: organization and planning, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. The objectives of this study were to verify the effectiveness of the PENcE among elementary school children and to investigate whether there are transfer effects to other executive, cognitive, and academic abilities. The sample consisted of 113 children attending 3rd or 4th grade at two public elementary schools. Eight classes participated in the study, divided into two groups: an experimental group (EG) (four classes; n = 64), which received the intervention, and a control group (CG) (four classes; n = 49), which continued their regular school activities. The EF and academic skills of both participant groups were evaluated before and after the intervention. The EG showed significantly greater improvements in inhibitory control, working memory, and abstract planning relative to the CG, with a small to medium effect size. There were transfer effects to other cognitive and academic abilities. These findings suggest the PENcE may be a useful method of improving EF and could benefit both school-aged children and education professionals.

Evidências de validade do teste informatizado para avaliação das funções executivas / Evidence of validity of the computerized test for evaluating executive functions / Evidencia de validez de la prueba computarizada para evaluación de funciones ejecutivas

Funções executivas (FE) referem-se ao conjunto de habilidades que, de forma integrada, coordenam o comportamento e a cognição. Assim, o comprometimento no desenvolvimento das FE está ligado a vários desfechos negativos ao longo da vida. Portanto, a avaliação dessas habilidades na infância é essencial para identificar e prevenir prejuízos na vida adulta. Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar evidências de validade do Teste Informatizado para Avaliação das Funções Executivas (Tafe) pelo critério de idade e pelo padrão de correlação entre medidas do TAFE e outras medidas de FE. Para isso, foi utilizada uma amostra de 51 crianças, entre 4 e 10 anos de idade, matriculadas em uma escola privada na cidade de Goiânia (GO), da pré-escola ao 4º ano do ensino fundamental. Como instrumentos, foram utilizados, além do Tafe, as tarefas de Bloco de Corsi, Teste de Trilhas A e B, Teste de Trilhas Pré-Escolares, Teste de Stroop Pré-Escolares e Subteste Dígitos da Escala Wechsler de Inteligência. Foram conduzidas análises estatísticas Kruskal Wallis para verificar a evidência de validade por relação com idade e análises de correlação não paramétrica de Spearman para avaliar as evidências de validade convergente. O instrumento investigado mostrou-se efetivo para discriminar entre as diferentes faixas etárias, assim, sensível ao desenvolvimento das FE. Os resultados obtidos no Tafe correlacionaram-se aos obtidos em outros testes que também avaliaram FE, mostrando claros padrões de convergência. Logo, as análises dos resultados fornecem evidências de validade ao Tafe, derivadas a partir de diferentes estratégias de investigação.(AU)

Executive functions (EF) refer to the set of skills that, in an integrated way, coordinate behavior and cognition. Thus, the commitment in developing EF is linked to several negative outcomes throughout life. Therefore, the assessment of these abilities in childhood is essential to identify and prevent possible harm in adult life. This study aimed to investigate evidences of validity of the Computerized Test for Evaluation of Executive Functions (TAFE) by the age criterion and by the pattern of correlation between TAFE measures and other EF measures. To this end, a sample of 51 children, between 4 and 10 years old, enrolled in a private school in the municipality of Goiânia (GO), from preschool to the 4th year of elementary school, was used. As instruments, in addition to TAFE, the tasks of Corsi Block, Trails Test A and B, Preschool Trails Test, Preschool Stroop Test and the Digits Subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale were used. Kruskal Wallis statistical analyzes were conducted to verify the evidence of validity by age criteria and Spearman's nonparametric correlation analysis to assess evidence of convergent validation. The instrument investigated was effective to discriminate between different age groups, thus being sensitive to the development of EF. The results obtained in TAFE were correlated with those obtained in other tests that also assess FE, showing patterns of convergence. Therefore, the analysis of the results provides validation evidence to TAFE, derived from different investigation methods.(AU)

Las funciones ejecutivas (FE) se refieren al conjunto de habilidades que coordinan la conducta y la cognición. Así, el deterioro en el desarrollo de FE está relacionado con varios resultados negativos durante la vida. Por tanto, la valoración de estas habilidades en la infancia es fundamental para identificar y prevenir posibles daños en la vida adulta. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar la evidencia de validez de la Prueba Computarizada para Evaluación de Funciones Ejecutivas (Tafe) por el criterio de edad y convergencia entre las medidas Tafe y otras medidas de FE. Para ello, se utilizó una muestra de 51 niños, de entre 4 y 10 años de edad, matriculados en un colegio privado de Goiânia (Goiás, Brasil) desde la preescolar hasta 4.º de primaria. Como instrumentos, además del Tafe, se utilizaron las tareas de Bloque de Corsi, el Test de los senderos A y B, el Test de los Senderos Preescolares, el Test de Stroop Preescolar y la Subprueba de Dígitos de la Escala Wechsler de Inteligencia. Se realizaron análisis estadísticos de Kruskal Wallis para verificar la validez por criterios de edad y análisis de correlación no-paramétrica de Spearman para evaluar la evidencia de validez convergente. Tafe demostró ser efectivo para discriminar entre diferentes grupos de edad, así es sensible al desarrollo de FE. Los resultados en Tafe se correlacionaron con los obtenidos en otras pruebas de FE, lo que muestra claros patrones de convergencia. Por tanto, el análisis aporta evidencias de validez para Tafe, derivadas de diferentes estrategias de investigación.(AU)

Neuropsychological stimulation of executive functions in children with typical development: A systematic review.

This systematic review aimed to characterize empirical studies on neuropsychological interventions to stimulate executive functions in children with typical development. Searches were conducted according to the PRISMA method. Nineteen (19) studies on the analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs in pre-school and school children were obtained. There was a predominance of studies that used computerized cognitive training, most of them involving the stimulation of working memory. Others used pen and paper forms, or hybrid tasks, and some programs used a school curriculum approach aiming to improve self-regulation. Results provide preliminary evidence on the effectiveness of such on the executive performance in children with typical development. Each executive component, as well as each type of intervention has its peculiarities. Computerized trainings and pen and paper tasks tend to improve the targeted executive functions, but transfer effects are still inconsistent. Regarding the effects of programs using school curriculum approach, they seem to be more generalizable, with functionality gains accomplishing mainly socio-emotional regulation. Multimodal approaches may be even more effective. Follow-up studies should be targeted in order to track the maintenance of direct and transfer effects regarding mainly cognitive and social development associated to school achievement.

Executive Functions in the Prediction of Academic Performance in Elementary Education / Funções Executivas na Predição de Desempenho Acadêmico no início do Ensino Fundamental

Abstract The study investigated predictive models of reading and arithmetic based on performance and functional measures of executive functions (EF's). Ninety-four children (mean age = 6.14y) were evaluated through EF performance tests. Parents and teachers responded to a functional measure of EF. Two years later, children's reading and arithmetic were evaluated. There were low correlations between EF and later academic performance. For the reading model, inhibition was a relevant variable, with no gain in the prediction with the joint consideration of different EF measures. For arithmetic, attention and delay aversion presented a relevant contribution. When functional measure was considered, the model's prediction increased. The study indicated skills of interest in identifying children at risk of poor academic performance.

Resumo O estudo investigou modelos preditivos de leitura e aritmética a partir de medidas de desempenho e funcional de funções executivas (FE). Noventa e quatro crianças (Midade= 6,14a) foram avaliadas por meio de testes de desempenho de FE. Pais e professores responderam a uma medida funcional. Dois anos depois, leitura e aritmética foram avaliadas. Houve baixas correlações entre FE e desempenho acadêmico posterior. Para o modelo de leitura, inibição foi variável relevante; não houve ganho na predição com a consideração conjunta das diferentes medidas de FE. Para aritmética, atenção e aversão ao adiamento apresentaram contribuição relevante. A consideração da medida funcional aumentou a previsão do modelo. O estudo indicou habilidades de interesse na identificação de crianças em risco de baixo desempenho acadêmico.

Program of neuropsychological stimulation of cognition in students: Emphasis on executive functions - development and evidence of content validity.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to describe the construction process and content validity evidence of an early and preventive intervention program for stimulating executive functions (EF) in Elementary School children within the school environment. METHODS: The process has followed the recommended steps for creating neuropsychological instruments: internal phase of program organization, with literature search and analyses of available materials in the classroom; program construction; analysis by expert judges; data integration and program finalization. To determine the level of agreement among the judges, a Content Validity Index (CVI) was calculated. RESULTS: Content validity was evidenced by the agreement among the experts with regards to the program, both in general and for each activity. All steps taken were deemed necessary because they contributed to the identification of positive aspects and possible flaws in the process. CONCLUSION: The steps also helped to adapt stimuli and improve program tasks and activities. Methodological procedures implemented in this study can be adopted by other researchers to create or adapt neuropsychological stimulation and rehabilitation programs. Furthermore, the methodological approach allows the reader to understand, in detail, the technical and scientific rigor adopted in devising this program.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo desse estudo foi descrever o processo de construção e evidências de validade de conteúdo de um programa de intervenção precoce-preventiva para estimular as FE em crianças do Ensino Fundamental no ambiente escolar. MÉTODOS: O processo seguiu as etapas recomendadas para construção de instrumentos neuropsicológicos, são elas: fase interna de organização do programa, com pesquisa bibliográfica e análise dos materiais disponíveis em sala de aula; construção do programa; análise de juízes especialistas; integração dos dados e finalização do programa. Para determinar o nível de concordância entre os juízes, foi calculado o Índice de Validade de Conteúdo. RESULTADOS: Verificou-se concordância entre os especialistas tanto para o programa de forma geral, bem como em cada atividade, o que permitiu obter evidências de validade de conteúdo. Considera-se que todas as etapas foram essenciais e necessárias, pois contribuíram para identificar os pontos positivos e as possíveis falhas, assim como adequar os estímulos e aprimorar as tarefas e atividades do programa. CONCLUSÃO: Ao descrever os procedimentos metodológicos adotados nesse estudo, entende-se que outros também podem se basear para construir ou adaptar programas de estimulação e reabilitação neuropsicológica. Além disso, possibilita ao leitor uma compreensão detalhada de todo cuidado e rigor teórico e científico adotado na elaboração desse programa.

Development and psychometric properties of the Difficulties in Executive Functions, Regulation and Delay Aversion Inventory - Version for children and adolescents / Desenvolvimento e propriedades psicométricas do Inventário de Dificuldades em Funções Executivas, Regulação e Aversão ao Adiamento - versão para crianças e adolescentes / Desarrollo y propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Dificultades en las Funciones Ejecutivas, Regulación y Aversión al Aplazamiento - versión para niños y adolescentes

The study reports the development and investigation of the psychometric properties of the Difficulties in Executive Functions, Regulation and Delay Aversion Inventory - Version for children and adolescents (IFERA-I). Items were developed to assess working memory, flexibility, inhibition, delay aversion and state regulation. All of these are constructs related to the complex cognitive heterogeneity of the Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Evidence of content validity was gathered through verification by experts, and items with 100% agreement among evaluators were considered adequate. Parents (N=211) and teachers (N=189) of children (6 to 14 years of age) responded to the IFERA-I, Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) and Swanson, Nolan and Pelham Questionnaire (SNAP-IV). Convergence patterns between the CHEXI and SNAP-IV were observed. Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed an acceptable five-factor model for parental responses, with good levels of reliability. No model was corroborated for the teachers' responses. The results provide some evidence that the IFERA-I is a reliable and valid measure of different cognitive dimensions. They also suggest directions for future research and improvement of the measure. (AU)

O estudo relata o desenvolvimento e investigação das propriedades psicométricas do Inventário de Dificuldades em Funções Executivas, Regulação e Aversão ao Adiamento - Versão para crianças e adolescentes (IFERA-I). Foram desenvolvidos itens para avaliação de memória de trabalho, flexibilidade, inibição, aversão ao adiamento e regulação do estado, construtos relacionados à complexa heterogeneidade cognitiva observada no Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade/impulsividade. Evidências de validade de conteúdo foram reunidas através da verificação por especialistas, sendo considerados adequados itens com 100% de concordância entre avaliadores. Pais (N=211) e professores (N=189) de crianças (6 a 14 anos) responderam ao IFERA-I, Inventário de Funcionamento Executivo Infantil (CHEXI) e Swanson, Nolan e Pelham Questionnaire (SNAP-IV). Padrões de convergência com CHEXI e SNAP-IV foram observados. Análise fatorial confirmatoria revelou um modelo aceitável de cinco fatores para respostas dos pais, com bons índices de confiabilidade. Nenhum modelo foi corroborado para respostas dos professores. Os resultados fornecem algumas evidências de que o IFERA-I é uma medida confiável e válida de diferentes dimensões cognitivas. Ao mesmo tempo, também sugerem direções para futuras pesquisas e aprimoramento da medida. (AU)

El estudio relata el desarrollo e investigación de las propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Dificultades en las Funciones Ejecutivas, Regulación y Aversión al Aplazamiento - Versión para niños y adolescentes (IFERA-I). Se desarrollaron ítems para evaluar memoria de trabajo, flexibilidad, inhibición, aversión al aplazamiento y regulación del estado, constructos relacionados con la compleja heterogeneidad cognitiva observada en el Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad/Impulsividad. Evidencias de validez de contenido se recopilaron mediante la verificación por parte de expertos, y los ítems se consideraron adecuados con un 100% de acuerdo entre los evaluadores. Padres (N=211) y maestros (N=189) de niños (6 a 14 años) respondieron a IFERA-I, Inventario de Funcionamiento Ejecutivo de la Infancia (CHEXI) y Swanson, Nolan y Pelham Questionnaire (SNAP-IV). Se observaron patrones de convergencia con CHEXI y SNAP-IV. Análisis factorial confirmatorio reveló un modelo aceptable de cinco factores para las respuestas de los padres, con buenos niveles de confiabilidad. No se corroboró ningún modelo para las respuestas de los profesores. Los resultados proporcionan algunas evidencias de que el IFERA-I es una medida confiable y válida de diferentes dimensiones cognitivas. Al mismo tiempo, también sugieren direcciones para la investigación futura y la mejora de la medida. (AU)

Escrita em alunos com dificuldades de aprendizagem: Efeito Mateus / Writing in students with learning difficulties: Matthew effect

O estudo investigou a linguagem escrita de crianças do 2º e 4º anos com e sem sinais de transtorno específico de aprendizagem. Objetivou comparar as escritas entre dois os grupos de alunos, de modo a verificar se a diferença entre eles seria menor nas séries iniciais e tenderia a aumentar nas séries finais, como previsto teoricamente com base no efeito Mateus. Participaram do estudo 51 professores e 1085 alunos, sendo 49 indicados com sinais compatíveis com o transtorno específico de aprendizagem. O instrumento utilizado para analisar a escrita dos alunos foi o Teste de Desempenho Escolar (TDE-II). A partir das análises realizadas, observou-se que o total de palavras certas no ditado do TDE-II foi maior no 4º ano do que no 2º ano para a amostra total, como esperado, e que a diferença entre os alunos com e sem queixas de dificuldades foi maior no 4º ano do que no 2º ano. Análise de post-hoc revelou que não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os alunos com queixas do 2º ano e do 4º ano, ou seja, a diferença entre eles foi tão pequena que não se mostrou significativa. Tal resultado corrobora o efeito Mateus, sugerindo que crianças com dificuldades ao início da escolarização tendem a apresentar menores ganhos e se distanciar cada vez mais dos colegas com habilidades mais desenvolvidas. Logo, estratégias e intervenções precisam ser desenvolvidas para facilitar o desenvolvimento da linguagem escrita das crianças e promover avanços logo ao início da escolarização.

The study investigated writing of 2nd and 4th grade children with and without signs of the specific learning disorder, and aimed to compare the difference in writing between these two groups of students, to analyze whether the difference between them would be smaller in the early grades and would tend to increase in the final grades, as theoretically predicted by Matthew effect. 51 teachers and 1085 students participated in this study, among which 49 had signs compatible with the specific learning disorder. The instrument used to analyze the students writing was the School Performance Test (TDE-II). It was observed that, in general, the total number of correct words in the TDE-II dictation was greater in the 4th grade, compared to the 2nd grade, as expected, and the difference between students with and without complaints of difficulties was greater among the students in 4th grade than among 2nd grade students. Post-hoc tests showed that there was no statistically significant difference between 2nd grade students with complaints and 4th grade students of with complaints, that is, the difference between them was so small that it was not significant. This result corroborates the "Matthew effect": children with difficulties at the beginning of schooling tend to present lower gains and, increasingly, distance themselves from colleagues with more developed skills. Thus, strategies and interventions must be designed to facilitate children's literacy and promote advances at beginning of schooling.

Desenvolvimento e propriedades psicométricas do Teste Informatizado de Avaliação das Funções Executivas / Development and psychometric properties of the Computerized Executive Functions Assessment Test / Desarrollo y propiedades psicométricas del Test Informatizado de Evaluación de las Funciones Ejecutivas

Funções executivas (FE) são habilidades que permitem o autocontrole comportamental e cognitivo e estão relacionadas a diversos desfechos ao longo da vida. O uso de testes informatizados para avaliar as FE pode facilitar a precisão dos registros, a padronização e a análise dos dados. Este estudo objetivou desenvolver um instrumento informatizado para avaliar FE em crianças de 4 a 10 anos e analisar características psicométricas. Foram conduzidas cinco etapas: 1) Definição teórica e metodológica; 2) Construção dos itens; 3) Estudo piloto; 4) Análise de juízes; e 5) Estudos psicométricos de validade e fidedignidade. As tarefas informatizadas mostraram-se adequadas para o público-alvo, conforme avaliação dos juízes. As diferentes tarefas de memória de trabalho, inibição e flexibilidade cognitiva apresentaram correlações significativas entre si e a maioria das medidas no teste-reteste evidenciou estabilidade na mensuração. Portanto, os resultados sugerem viabilidade para uso do instrumento no contexto brasileiro. (AU)

Executive functions (EF) are skills linked to behavioral and cognitive self-control and are related to various outcomes throughout life. The use of computerized tests to evaluate EFs can facilitate the accuracy of records, standardization and data analysis. This study aimed to develop a computerized instrument for the EF assessment of children aged 4 to 10 years, and to seek psychometric evidence. Five steps were carried out: 1) Theoretical and methodological definition; 2) Construction of the items; 3) Pilot study; 4) Analysis of experts; and 5) Psychometric studies of validity and reliability. The computerized tasks proved to be suitable for the target audience according to the expert's evaluation. The results between the different tasks of working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility showed significant correlations and most test-retest measures showed stability in the measurement. Therefore, the results indicate the feasibility of using the instrument in the Brazilian context. (AU)

Funciones ejecutivas (FE) son habilidades que permiten el autocontrol conductual y cognitivo y están relacionadas con diversos resultados a lo largo de la vida. El uso de tests informatizados para evaluar las FE puede facilitar la precisión de los registros, la estandarización y el análisis de datos. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar un instrumento informatizado para la FE para niños de 4 a 10 años, y analizar evidencias psicométricas. Fueron ejecutados cinco pasos: 1) Definición teórica y metodológica; 2) Construcción de los ítems; 3) Estudio piloto; 4) Análisis de jueces; y 5) Estudios psicométricos de validez y fiabilidad. Las tareas informatizadas demostraron ser adecuadas para el público objetivo según la evaluación de los jueces. Las diferentes tareas de memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad cognitiva mostraron correlaciones significativas entre sí y la mayoría de las medidas test-retest presentaron estabilidad en la medición. Por lo tanto, los resultados sugieren la viabilidad del instrumento para el contexto brasileño. AU)

Reconhecimento de Palavras, Fluência e Compreensão de Leitura em Alunos com Transtorno do Espectro Autista / Word Recognition, Fluence and Reading Comprehension in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

RESUMO Tendo em vista que o desempenho acadêmico é um dos fatores associados ao bom prognóstico no Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA), este estudo avaliou diferentes aspectos cognitivos da leitura em oito meninos com TEA, entre 10 e 13 anos (M=10,87; DP=1,12), de escolas públicas e privadas. Avaliou-se o reconhecimento de palavras (TCLPP II), a fluência (TFL) e a compreensão de leitura (TCCL), bem como o Quociente de Inteligência (QI) Estimado (Vocabulário e Raciocínio Matricial do WASI). Os resultados demonstram frequência maior de desempenhos abaixo da média em compreensão de leitura e maior frequência de desempenhos na média tanto no reconhecimento de palavras quanto na fluência de leitura. Em relação ao tempo nas tarefas de fluência e compreensão, houve maior frequência de classificações na média. Não houve correlação significativa entre Vocabulário do WASI e o QI com os testes de leitura. Entretanto, houve correlação positiva, significativa e de alta magnitude entre reconhecimento de palavras com os escores em fluência e compreensão. Uma tendência de magnitude moderada foi observada entre essas duas últimas variáveis. Conhecer o perfil de leitura do aluno com TEA, a partir da avaliação do reconhecimento de palavras, da fluência e da compreensão, possibilita orientar adaptações escolares, com impacto no seu desenvolvimento acadêmico e prognóstico.

ABSTRACT Considering that academic performance is one of the factors associated with a good prognosis in the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), this study evaluated different cognitive aspects of reading in 8 boys with ASD, between 10 and 13 years old (M=10.87; SD=1.12), of public and private schools. Word recognition (TCLPP II), fluency (TFL) and reading comprehension (TCCL) were evaluated, as well as Estimated IQ (Vocabulary and Matrix Reasoning of the WASI). The results demonstrate a higher frequency of below-average performances in reading comprehension skills, higher frequency of performances on average in word recognition and reading fluency. Regarding the time on fluency and comprehension tasks, there was a higher frequency of average classifications. There was no significant correlation between the Vocabulary and the IQ with the reading tests. However, there was a positive, significant and high magnitude correlation between word recognition with fluency and comprehension scores. A trend of moderate magnitude was observed between these last two variables. The knowledge about the reading profile of students with ASD obtained from the assessment of word recognition, fluency and comprehension makes it possible to guide school adaptations, with an impact on their academic development and prognosis.

Development and Content Validity of IFERA-II for Adults / Desenvolvimento e Validade de Conteúdo do IFERA-II para Adultos

Abstract Considering the importance of the functional assessment, a scale was developed to evaluate Executive Functions (EFs), State Regulation (SR) and Delay Aversion (DA) in adults, based on a children's scale, and evidence of content validity was investigated. In Phase 1, items from the children's version were adapted to generate the Inventory of Difficulties in Executive Functions, Regulation and Delay Aversion for Adults (IFERA-II), with 28 items of EFs (inhibition, working memory and flexibility), RS and DA. Analysis by judges verified the representativeness of the contents of the items. After adaptations, 18 adult participants responded to the IFERA-II and were interviewed regarding comprehension, need for examples and clarity of vocabulary. A new revision led to the preliminary version of the IFERA-II, the psychometric properties of which should be investigated.

Resumo Diante da importância da avaliação funcional, foi elaborada uma escala para avaliar Funções Executivas (FE), Regulação do Estado (RE) e Aversão ao Adiamento (AA) em adultos, baseada em uma escala infantil, e foram investigadas evidências de validade de conteúdo. Na Fase 1, itens da versão infantil foram adaptados gerando o Inventário de Dificuldades em Funções Executivas, Regulação e Aversão ao Adiamento para Adultos (IFERA-II), com 28 itens de FE (inibição, memória de trabalho, flexibilidade), RE e AA. Análise pelos juízes verificou representatividade de conteúdo dos itens. Após adequações, 18 participantes adultos responderam ao IFERA-II e à entrevista sobre compreensão, necessidade de exemplos e clareza de vocabulário. Nova revisão resultou na versão preliminar do IFERA-II, cujas propriedades psicométricas devem ser investigadas futuramente.

Microcephaly and other Zika virus related events: the impact on children, families and health teams. / Microcefalia e outras manifestações relacionadas ao vírus Zika: impacto nas crianças, nas famílias e nas equipes de saúde.

The present study aimed to present an overview of recent national and international research on the Zika virus (ZIKV), as well as to explore possible action plans focused on children, their families and the health teams involved.Therefore, the study proposes the implementation of tracking systems in order to identify, describe and characterize the potential correlates of prenatal exposure to ZIKV, divided into three lines of action: 1. Diagnostic and etiological evaluation as well as screening of developmental problems in children confirmed or suspected of prenatal ZIKV infection. 2. Investigation of the emotional impact, quality of life, coping strategies and support network of the affected children and their families. 3. Training of multidisciplinary teams to conduct assessments and intervention programs throughout these children's development, especially in the first three years of life. In conclusion, the recent ZIKV outbreak in Brazil and several other Latin American countries places a significant burden on the health care systems: to understand the real meaning of a potential new teratogen; to unravel the pathogenic mechanisms of ZIKV, particularly in a prevention perspective; and to recognize the broad spectrum of clinical manifestations in order to devise intervention programs.

The Promotion of Executive Functioning in a Brazilian Public School: A Pilot Study.

Studies have highlighted the role of early Executive Functioning (EF) interventions with regard to preventing behavioral and mental health problems. In this sense, interventions to promote EF have been developed and tested; however, in Latin America, evidence of early EF-related interventions is still limited. We developed a program for EF promotion in children and applied it to first-grade students. Sixty-eight six-year-old children and their five teachers were divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). EG teachers administered the Intervention Program for Self-regulation and Executive Functions in a classroom context. The results of the ANCOVAs showed that children in the EG had significantly better performance in measures of cognitive flexibility (Trail Making Test for Preschoolers; p = .05), attention (Cancellation Attention Test - errors in the Part 3; p = .027), inhibition (Simon Task - interference score in the part 1; p = .008 and interference reaction time in the part 2; p = .010), and planning (CHEXI - planning scale; p = .041) than those in the CG. The results show that EF can be promoted using classroom intervention in public schools. These results expand previous findings for Latin America.

Mental health, cognition and academic performance in the 1st year of elementary education / Saúde mental, cognição e desempenho escolar no 1º ano do ensino fundamental / Salud mental, cognición y rendimiento escolar en 1º grado de escuela primaria

The study investigated 1) relationships and explanatory models of mental health indicators from cognitive abilities and 2) relationships between mental health indicators and academic performance one year later. Participants were 86 children, students of the 1st year of Elementary Education, evaluated in intelligence, inhibitory control (IC) and language. Parents and teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). One year later, the children were re-evaluated in word recognition (WR) and arithmetic. The IC measures were related and could explain up to 21.9% of the variance in the SDQ indices completed by parents and teachers. The SDQ indices completed by teachers were related to WR and arithmetic performances, predicting up to 16.3% of the variance in school performance measures the following year. There was no IC mediation effect on the models generated. The findings suggest an interaction between specific cognitive skills, mental health indicators and academic performance. (AU)

O estudo investigou 1) relações e modelos explicativos de indicadores de saúde mental a partir de habilidades cognitivas e 2) relações entre indicadores de saúde mental e desempenho escolar um ano depois. Participaram 86 crianças, estudantes do 1º ano do ensino fundamental, avaliadas em inteligência, controle inibitório (CI) e linguagem. Pais e professores responderam ao Questionário de Capacidades e Dificuldades (SDQ). Um ano depois, as crianças foram reavaliadas em reconhecimento de palavras (RP) e aritmética. As medidas de CI relacionaram-se e puderam explicar até 21,9% da variância em índices do SDQ respondido por pais e professores. Índices do SDQ respondido pelos professores relacionaram-se aos desempenhos em RP e aritmética, predizendo até 16,3% da variância nas medidas de desempenho escolar no ano seguinte. Não houve efeito de mediação de CI nos modelos gerados. Os achados sugerem uma interação entre habilidades cognitivas específicas, indicadores de saúde mental e desempenho escolar. (AU)

El estudio investigó 1) las relaciones y modelos explicativos de los indicadores de salud mental a partir de las habilidades cognitivas y 2) las relaciones entre los indicadores de salud mental y el rendimiento escolar un año después. Participaron 86 niños, estudiantes del 1º grado de la Escuela Primaria, evaluados en inteligencia, control inhibitorio (CI) e lenguaje. Padres y maestros respondieron al cuestionario Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Un año más tarde, los niños fueron reevaluados en reconocimiento de palabras (RP) y aritmética. Las medidas de CI se relacionaron y explicaron hasta 21,9% de la varianza en los índices de SDQ atendidos por padres y maestros. Los índices de SDQ respondidos por los maestros se relacionaron con los rendimientos en RP Y aritmética, prediciendo hasta el 16.3% de la varianza en las medidas de rendimiento escolar al año siguiente. No hubo efecto de mediación de CI en los modelos. Los hallazgos sugieren una interacción entre habilidades cognitivas específicas, indicadores de salud mental y rendimiento escolar. (AU)

Intervention for executive functions in attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder.

This study aimed to investigate if an executive functions (EF) intervention could promote these skills in individuals with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eighteen children and adolescents, 7-13 years old, divided into experimental (EG, N = 8) and control (CG, N = 10) groups, were assessed in the Block Design and Vocabulary subtests of the WISC III and seven tests of EF. Parents answered two scales, measuring EF and inattention and hyperactivity signs. EG children participated in a program to promote EF in twice-weekly group sessions of one hour each. After 8 months of intervention, groups were assessed again. ANCOVA, controlling for age, intelligence quotient and pretest performance, revealed gains in attention/inhibition and auditory working memory measures for the EG. No effect was found for scales or measures of more complex EF. Results are not conclusive, but they illustrate some promising data about EF interventions in children and adolescents with ADHD.

Funções executivas: correlação entre dois inventários e desempenho acadêmico em matemática / Executive functions: correlation between two inventories and academic performance in mathematics / Funciones ejecutivas: correlación entre dos inventarios y rendimiento académico en matemáticas

Diante da importância das funções executivas para o desempenho escolar, investigou-se a associação entre notas na disciplina de matemática e desempenho em funções executivas, conforme relato de pais e professores de alunos do 5º ano, nos instrumentos BRIEF e IFERA-I. Participaram do estudo pais/responsáveis e professores de 47 crianças, com idade entre 10 e 11 anos, de uma escola particular do estado de São Paulo. Houve correlação significativa entre notas na disciplina de matemática e avaliações de pais e professores no BRIEF e IFERA-I, sendo que o BRIEF apresentou maiores correlações que o IFERA-I. Respostas dos professores apresentaram correlações mais altas com desempenho matemático do que as dos pais em todas as escalas, exceto na organização de materiais do BRIEF, e os pais relataram mais dificuldades do que os professores. Os resultados corroboram a associação entre funções executivas e matemática, bem como a importância de múltiplos informantes na avaliação infantil. (AU)

Considering the importance of executive functions for school performance, the present study investigated the association between grades in Mathematics and performance in executive functions, as reported by parents and teachers of 5th grade students, using the BRIEF and IFERA-I instruments. Participants were parents/guardians and teachers of 47 children, aged between 10 and 11 years, from a private school in the state of São Paulo. There was significant correlation between grades in Mathematics and the parents' and teachers' assessments in the BRIEF and IFERA-I, with the BRIEF presenting higher correlations than the IFERA-I. The teachers' responses showed higher negative correlations with mathematical achievement than those of the parents in all subscales, except in the organization of materials (BRIEF), and the parents reported more difficulties than the teachers. The results corroborate the association between executive functions and Mathematics, as well as the importance of multiple informants in child assessments. (AU)

Ante la importancia de las funciones ejecutivas para el rendimiento escolar, el presente estudio investigó la asociación entre las notas en matemáticas y el rendimiento en funciones ejecutivas a través de los instrumentos BRIEF e IFERA-I, tomando como indicativo los informes de padres y profesores de alumnos del 5º año. Participaron del estudio padres/tutores y profesores de 47 niños, con edades comprendidas entre 10 y 11 años, de una escuela privada de la provincia de São Paulo. Los resultados mostraron que existe correlación negativa significativa entre las notas en la asignatura y las evaluaciones de padres y profesores en el BRIEF e IFERA-I, siendo que el BRIEF presentó mayores correlaciones que el IFERA-I. Las respuestas de los profesores obtuvieron correlaciones más altas con el rendimiento matemático que las de los padres en todas las escalas, excepto en la organización de materiales (BRIEF), o sea, los padres parecen haber sido más rigurosos en la evaluación del comportamiento de sus hijos. (AU)

Prediction of reading and writing in elementary education through early childhood education / Predição de leitura e escrita no ensino fundamental por meio da educação infantil / Predicción de la lectura y escritura en los primeros años de la educación infantil

The study investigated the predictive role of executive functions, language, initial reading and writing abilities, teacher's perception of the students' difficulties and family characteristics, evaluated in Early Childhood Education (ECE) (Jardim I and Jardim II), in relation to reading and writing performance in the first year of Elementary Education. A total of 71 children were monitored in a longitudinal manner from ECE up to the first year, and evaluated in Oral Language (OL), Executive Functions (EF), initial Reading and Writing skills in ECE and, in the first year, evaluated by means of Reading and Writing tests. Parents provided information on socioeconomic status (SES) and teachers indicated children with difficulties. After the data imputation process, regression tree analysis showed that OL skills and initials skills of reading and writing in ECE explained a mean of 43% of the reading variability in the first year. For writing, the models also included performances in EF, income, father's age and indication of difficulty by the teacher in ECE, explaining a mean of 78% of the variability in writing in the first year. The results allowed identifying abilities and variables that can be considered precursors of subsequent performances in Elementary Education, providing guidance for actions of early identification and intervention...(AU)

O estudo investigou o papel preditivo de funções executivas, a linguagem, as habilidades iniciais de leitura e escrita, a percepção do professor e as características familiares sobre as dificuldades de seus alunos, avaliadas na Educação Infantil (EI) (Jardim I e Jardim II), em relação ao desempenho em leitura e escrita no primeiro ano do Ensino Fundamental. Participaram 71 crianças acompanhadas longitudinalmente no curso da EI em níveis anteriores ao 1º ano, avaliadas em Linguagem Oral (LO), Funções Executivas (FE), habilidades iniciais de Leitura e de Escrita na EI e, no 1º ano, em testes de Leitura e de Escrita. Pais proveram informações sobre nível socioeconômico e professores indicaram crianças com dificuldades. Após processo de imputação de dados, análise de regressão em árvore evidenciou que habilidades de LO e iniciais de leitura e escrita na EI explicaram uma média de 43% da variabilidade em leitura no 1º ano. Para escrita, os modelos incluíram ainda desempenhos em FE, renda, idade do pai e indicação de dificuldade pelo professor na EI, explicando média de 78% da variabilidade em escrita no 1º ano. Os resultados permitiram identificar habilidades e variáveis que podem ser consideradas precursoras para desempenhos posteriores no Ensino Fundamental, podendo informar ações de identificação e intervenção precoces...(AU)

El estudio investigó el papel predictivo de funciones ejecutivas: lenguaje, habilidades iniciales de lectura y escritura, percepción del profesor y características familiares sobre las dificultades de sus alumnos, evaluadas en la Educación Infantil (Jardim I y Jardim II), en relación al desempeño en la lectura y escritura en el primer año de la primaria. Participaron 71 niños acompañados de manera longitudinal desde la Educación Infantil (EI) hasta el 1.º año, quienes fueron evaluados en Lengua Oral (LO), Funciones Ejecutivas (FE), habilidades iniciales de Lectura y de Escritura en la EI y, en el 1.º año los evaluaron en los exámenes de lectura y escritura. Los padres proporcionaron información sobre el nivel socioeconómico, y los profesores indicaron a los niños con dificultades. Después del proceso de imputación de datos, el análisis de regresión en árbol evidenció que las habilidades de LO y de lectura y escritura iniciales en la EI explicaron un promedio del 43% de la variabilidad en lectura en el primer año. Para la escritura, los modelos incluyeron los desempeños en la EI, renta, edad del padre e indicación de dificultad por el profesor en la EI, explicando la media del 78% de la variabilidad en escritura en el primer año. Los resultados permitieron identificar habilidades y variables que pueden ser consideradas precursoras para los desempeños posteriores en la primaria, pudiendo informar acciones de identificación e intervención precoces...(AU)

Competências de leitura e vocabulário em libras em escolares surdos / Reading skills and vocabulary in Libras in deaf students

Considerando a importância do vocabulário em língua de sinais para a aquisição de linguagem escrita nos surdos, o presente estudo analisou habilidades de reconhecimento de palavras, compreensão de leitura e vocabulário receptivo em Libras de alunos surdos, bem como verificou a correlação entre elas. Participaram 15 alunos surdos, com idades entre 13 e 22 anos, cursando ensino fundamental II e médio de escolas regulares municipais e estaduais de Iguatu (Ceará). Os participantes foram avaliados com o Teste de Vocabulário por Imagem Peabody (TVIP) em versão adaptada, bem como o Teste de Competência de Leitura de Palavras (TCLPP) para avaliar reconhecimento de palavras e o Teste de Compreensão de Leitura de Sentenças (TCSE) para compreensão de leitura. A amostra apresentou desempenhos baixos tanto em vocabulário receptivo quanto nas competências de leitura, em relação a alunos ouvintes. Foi identificado padrão de leitura logográfico do grupo surdo, o que pode impactar na compreensão de leitura. Corroborando a literatura, os resultados evidenciaram que as competências avaliadas encontram-se associadas de forma positiva, com magnitudes de moderadas a altas. Dessa forma, o estudo evidenciou habilidades pouco desenvolvidas nessa amostra de estudantes surdos, porém revelou relação entre habilidades mais básicas de reconhecimento de palavras e de vocabulário com a habilidade complexa de compreensão de leitura.

Considering the importance of sign language vocabulary to written language acquisition in deaf people, the present study analyzed the level of word recognition skills, reading comprehension and receptive vocabulary in Brazilian Sign Language (also known as "Libras") of deaf students, and also verified correlations between them. Fifteen deaf students participated, between the ages of 13 and 22, enrolled in elementary and secondary schools of regular municipal and state schools in the city of Iguatu (Ceará). Participants were assessed on the adapted version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), as well as the Word Reading Competency Test (WRCT) to evaluate the word recognition skills and the Comprehension Test of Reading Sentences (CTRS) for the reading comprehension evaluation. The sample presented low performances both in receptive vocabulary and in reading skills assessed in relation to hearing students. A logographic reading pattern of the deaf group was identified, which tends to hamper reading comprehension. Corroborating the literature of the area, the results showed that the competences evaluated are positively associated, with moderate to high magnitudes. Thus, the study evidenced poorly developed skills in this sample of deaf students but revealed a relationship between more basic word recognition skills and vocabulary skills with complex reading comprehension skills.